The Melendiz River is located at the east of Tuz Gölü Fault Zone in western Cappadocia. In the central part of Melendiz River Valley, Ihlara Canyon attracts many tourists due to its landscape, cultural and archaeological values. The Melendiz Valley also encompasses geological and geomorphological features that exemplify the evolutionary history of western Cappadocia. In this study, the late Miocene-Quaternary geomorphological evolution of the Melendiz River Valley was investigated. The results indicate that a fluvial sedimentary sequence with ignimbrite intercalation was deposited during the late Miocene and early Pliocene. This was unconformably overlain by lacustrine limestone (Kışladağ Formation) of Pliocene age. The Pliocene lake regressed westward because of the changes in the tectonic regime and geomorphological processes during the late Pliocene (~ 3 Ma ago) and the initial Melendiz River developed on the lake bottom. During the Quaternary the Melendiz River developed under the control of both the neotectonic regime and the climate. This development provoked a 160-m-deep incision into the Pliocene sediments and the early Pliocene-Miocene ignimbrites below, giving birth to the Ihlara Canyon. In the proper valley of the Melendiz River, six strath terraces and Holocene flood plain record the incision process.Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Turkey is situated in the temperate zone as the macro climate zone. The fact that it remains under the influence of different air masses in every season due to its mathematical position causes differences are experienced in terms of the climate types. Besides its mathematical position, its special position also causes this influence grows stronger and the differences become clear much more. The fact that it is surrounded with seas from three sides, there are high mountain ranges in its northern and southern, its altitude increases from the west to the east, the roughness is high due to the tectonic effects and river erosion cause different climate types are dominant. The distribution of the dispersion areas of these climate types can be made by means of various climate classifications. Köppen-Geiger climate classification is a classification which is used at most in the world and which is used in the comparison of the past environmental conditions and the current environmental conditions and in the comparison of the future climate differences with our present day. Even if the dispersion areas of the climate types are shown according to Köppen-Geiger climate classification by different researchers at global scale, these classifications cannot reflect the diversity in Turkey in the exact manner due to the lack of data and scale problem. In this study, the monthly average temperature and monthly average total precipitation data of 249 meteorological station associated to the General Directorate of Meteorology and the global monthly average temperature and monthly average total precipitation data of the model printouts having 30-minute (approximately 1 km) resolution were used for the purpose of revealing the climate types which are dominant in Turkey according to Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Two different Köppen-Geiger climate types distribution maps were created depending on these two different data set. According to Köppen-Geiger climate classification, it was revealed that there are 13 different Köppen-Geiger climate zones in Turkey. According to this classification, the Mediterranean coasts were revealed to be in the "temperate-dry-hot summer climate- Csa" class, Konya Region and the southern of the Southeast Anatolia was revealed to be of the "dry-hot and cold steppe climate - Bsh-k" type and ET, that's tundra areas were designated in the Northeast Anatolia and Ararat Mountain. Köppen-Geiger climate zones of Turkey which were produced at low resolution in the previous studies were detailed much more in this study.Extended English summary is in the end of Full Text PDF (TURKISH) file. ÖzetTürkiye, makro iklim bölgesi olarak ılıman kuşakta yer almaktadır. Matematik konumu nedeniyle her mevsimde farklı hava kütlelerinin etkisi altında kalması iklim tipleri bakımından farklılıkların yaşanmasına neden olmaktadır. Matematik konumu yanında özel konumu da bu etkinin kuvvetlenmesine ve farklıkların daha da belirginleşmesine neden olur. Üç tarafının denizlerde çevrili olması, kuzey ve güneyinde yüksek dağ sıralarının bulunması, yükseltisinin batıdan doğuya doğru artması, tektonik etkiler ve akarsu aşındırması nedeniyle engebenin fazla olması kısa mesafelerde farklı iklim tiplerinin hüküm sürmesine neden olmaktadır. Bu iklim tiplerinin yayılış alanlarının dağılışı, çeşitli iklim sınıflandırmaları ile yapılabilmektedir. Köppen-Geiger iklim tasnifi, dünyada en fazla kullanılan, geçmiş ortam şartları ile günümüz ortam şartlarının karşılaştırılmasında ve gelecekteki iklim farklılıklarının günümüzle karşılaştırılmasında kullanılan bir sınıflandırmadır. Küresel ölçekte farklı araştırmacılar tarafından Köppen-Geiger iklim sınıflandırmasına göre iklim tiplerinin yayılış alanları gösterilse bile bu sınıflandırmalar veri yetersizliği ve ölçek problemi nedeniyle Türkiye’deki çeşitliliği tam yansıtamamaktadır. Bu çalışmada Köppen-Geiger iklim sınıflandırmasına göre Türkiye’de hüküm süren ikim tiplerini ortaya koymak amacıyla Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü’ne ait 249 meteoroloji istasyonuna ait aylık ortalama sıcaklık ve aylık ortalama toplam yağış verileri ile 30 dakikalık (yaklaşık 1 km) çözünürlüğe sahip model çıktılarına ait küresel aylık ortalama sıcaklık ve aylık ortalama toplam yağış verileri kullanılmıştır. Bu iki farklı veri setine bağlı iki farklı Köppen-Geiger iklim tipleri dağılışı haritası oluşturulmuştur. Köppen-Geiger iklim sınıflandırmasına göre Türkiye’de 13 farklı Köppen-Geiger iklim bölgesi olduğu ortaya konulmuştur. Bu sınıflandırmaya göre Akdeniz kıyıları “ılıman-kurak-sıcak yaza sahip iklim - Csa” sınıfında çıkarken, Konya Bölümü ve Güneydoğu Anadolu’nun güneyi “kurak-sıcak ve soğuk step iklim- Bsh-k” tipinde, Kuzeydoğu Anadolu’da ve Ağrı Dağı’nda ise ET yani tundra alanlar belirlenmiştir. Daha önceki çalışmalarda düşük çözünürlükte üretilen Türkiye Köppen-Geiger iklim bölgeleri bu çalışmada daha da ayrıntı kazanmıştır.
Research ArticleHoldridge ecological zones (HEB) are used for climate classifications and contain biome identification. In this study, using high-resolution ERA-Interim and HadGEM2-CC model data, current, 2041-2060 and 2061-2080 periods HEB zones of Turkey have been created. According to the obtained results, while premontane and lower montane belts are expanded in Turkey, subalpine, alpine and alvar belts are narrowing during the 2041-2080 period. Arid regions that not been in Turkey now appears during the 2041-2060 period. While semi-arid and sub-humid areas are increasing, humid, perhumid, super humid and semi-saturated areas are decreasing in this period. Desert shrubs, thorn woodlands, thorn steppes, steppes, dry forests, moist forests, wet forests, rain forests, tundra and cold desert biomes has been determined in current Turkey conditions. While very arid forest biome appears in 2041-2060 period, glacial areas disappear in 2061-2080 period. A method that makes determination of HEB classes practical has been developed.
It is possible to see different climatic types together in Turkey having very different habitats, ecosystems and environmental media by the mathematical and special position where it is located in. The creation of large-scale weather maps and databases to reflect this diversity is necessary for the clarification of the elements that are affected by this diversity. This diversity could not be reflected sufficiently due to the reason that the weather maps which have been created so far today are not large-scale. In this study, it is aimed to create a map and a database concerning Turkey, which is detailed, in which the topographical effects are reflected, which shows the ecosystem differences and which is digitally accessible. For this purpose, the Thornthwaite climate classification in which the sub-climatic types can be digitally separated was preferred. First of all, the monthly average precipitation and temperature data were arranged at 805.000 points of Turkey and then this data was analyzed according to the Thornthwaite climate classification method. The results obtained were submitted as grid data at the resolution of 1 km in 4 different categories and an integrated climate class map by the combination of them. According to the results of the analysis, it was determined that there are 8 different precipitation effectiveness index classes, 8 different temperature effect index classes, 6 different drought and moistness index classes and 8 different potential evaporation index classes in Turkey. It was seen that the number of the integrated index classes created by the combination of them is 233. Accordingly, it is possible to say that there are 233 different environmental conditions in Turkey. ÖzetBulunduğu matematiksel ve özel konum itibariyle çok farklı habitat, ekosistem ve çevresel ortam barındıran Türkiye’de farklı iklim tiplerini bir arada görmek mümkündür. Bu çeşitliliği yansıtacak büyük ölçekli iklim haritalarının ve veri tabanlarının oluşturulması, bu çeşitlilikten etkilenen ögelerin açıklanması için gereklidir. Günümüze kadar yapılan iklim haritalarının büyük ölçekli olmamaları nedeniyle bu çeşitlilik yeteri kadar yansıtılamamıştır. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’ye ait ayrıntılı, topografik etkilerin yansıtıldığı, ekosistem farklılıklarını gösteren ve sayısal olarak ulaşılabilecek bir harita, veri tabanını üretmek amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla, alt iklim tiplerinin sayısal olarak ayrılabildiği Thornthwaite iklim sınıflandırması tercih edilmiştir. Önce, Türkiye’de 805.000 noktasında aylık ortalama yağış ve sıcaklık verileri düzenlenmiş, ardından bu veriler Thornthwaite iklim sınıflandırma yöntemine göre analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar 4 farklı kategoride 1 km çözünürlükte grid verisi olarak sunulmuş ve bunların birleştirilmesi ile tümleşik iklim sınıfı haritası oluşturulmuştur. Analiz sonuçlarına göre Türkiye’de 8 farklı yağış etkinlik indisi, 8 farklı sıcaklık tesiri indisi, 6 farklı kuraklık ve nemlilik indisi ve 8 farklı potansiyel buharlaşma indis sınıfının olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bunların birleştirilmesi ile oluşturulan tümleşik indis sınıflarının ise 233 olduğu görülmüştür. Buna bağlı olarak Türkiye’de 233 farklı çevresel koşul olduğunu söylemek mümkündür.
The present study aimed to investigate the palyno-morphological features of species of family Vitaceae from Pakistan. A total of nine species, belonging to four genera were collected, pressed, identified, and then analyzed microscopically. Both quantitative and qualitative characters of the pollen grains were recorded including polar and equatorial diameter, P/E ratio, number of colpi and pores, exine thickness and shapes of the pollen in both polar and equatorial view, and exine sculpturing using Leica microscope fitted with camera Meiji Infinity 1 and then analyzed statistically using software IBM SPSS Statistics 20. The results of the present study demonstrated the variations in polar and equatorial diameter, exine thickness, P/E ratio, pollen shape, and exine sculpturing of the studied species and highlighted the significance of pollen morphology as an identification tool. The present study may contribute to better understand the classification at genus level, which will support the future phylogenetic characterization of the family.
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