In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, double-strand breaks (DSBs) activate DNA checkpoint pathways that trigger several responses including a strong G 2 /M arrest. We have previously provided evidence that the phosphatases Ptc2 and Ptc3 of the protein phosphatase 2C type are required for DNA checkpoint inactivation after a DSB and probably dephosphorylate the checkpoint kinase Rad53. In this article we have investigated further the interactions between Ptc2 and Rad53. We showed that forkhead-associated domain 1 (FHA1) of Rad53 interacts with a specific threonine of Ptc2, T376, located outside its catalytic domain in a TXXD motif which constitutes an optimal FHA1 binding sequence in vitro. Mutating T376 abolishes Ptc2 interaction with the Rad53 FHA1 domain and results in adaptation and recovery defects following a DSB. We found that Ckb1 and Ckb2, the regulatory subunits of the protein kinase CK2, are necessary for the in vivo interaction between Ptc2 and the Rad53 FHA1 domain, that Ckb1 binds Ptc2 in vitro and that ckb1⌬ and ckb2⌬ mutants are defective in adaptation and recovery after a DSB. Our data thus strongly suggest that CK2 is the kinase responsible for the in vivo phosphorylation of Ptc2 T376.The DNA checkpoint is a surveillance mechanism that detects DNA lesions or replication blocks and coordinates various responses such as cell cycle arrests and transcriptional or posttranscriptional modifications. This mechanism is present in all eukaryotes and has been particularly analyzed in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, where it was originally identified (14, 53). In S. cerevisiae, activation of the DNA checkpoint by DNA lesions depends essentially on two sets of proteins, Rad24 and the PCNA-like trimer Rad17-Mec3-Ddc1, on the one hand, and the ATR homolog, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-like Mec1 (in complex with an auxiliary subunit Ddc2), on the other hand (reviewed in references 28 and 58). Both the Rad17-Mec3-Ddc1 and the Mec1-Ddc2 complexes have been shown to be simultaneously and independently recruited to a double-strand break (DSB) artificially induced by the HO endonuclease (15,29). Once activated, Mec1 induces the phosphorylation and the activation of two central transducers, the Rad53 and Chk1 kinases, which subsequently phosphorylate downstream effectors. The phosphorylation of Rad53 and Chk1 also depends on so-called "adaptors," Rad9 in the case of DNA damage and Mrc1 in the case of replication blocks and DNA lesions during S phase (for a review on Rad53 activation, see reference 33).Rad53 plays a central part in S. cerevisiae DNA checkpoint: it controls the majority of the DNA damage responses and rad53⌬ cells are strongly hypersensitive to all genotoxic stresses. Rad53 is the founding member of the conserved family of FHA (forkhead associated) domain-containing checkpoint kinases, which also includes mammalian Chk2 and Schizosaccharomyces pombe Cds1. It contains two FHA domains, FHA1 and FHA2, flanking the protein catalytic domain. FHA domains are protein-protein interaction domains that specifica...

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The budding yeast Srs2 is the archetype of helicases that regulate several aspects of homologous recombination (HR) to maintain genomic stability. Srs2 inhibits HR at replication forks and prevents high frequencies of crossing-over. Additionally, sensitivity to DNA damage and synthetic lethality with replication and recombination mutants are phenotypes that can only be attributed to another role of Srs2: the elimination of lethal intermediates formed by recombination proteins. To shed light on these intermediates, we searched for mutations that bypass the requirement of Srs2 in DNA repair without affecting HR. Remarkably, we isolated rad52-L264P, a novel allele of RAD52, a gene that encodes one of the most central recombination proteins in yeast. This mutation suppresses a broad spectrum of srs2Δ phenotypes in haploid cells, such as UV and γ-ray sensitivities as well as synthetic lethality with replication and recombination mutants, while it does not significantly affect Rad52 functions in HR and DNA repair. Extensive analysis of the genetic interactions between rad52-L264P and srs2Δ shows that rad52-L264P bypasses the requirement for Srs2 specifically for the prevention of toxic Rad51 filaments. Conversely, this Rad52 mutant cannot restore viability of srs2Δ cells that accumulate intertwined recombination intermediates which are normally processed by Srs2 post-synaptic functions. The avoidance of toxic Rad51 filaments by Rad52-L264P can be explained by a modification of its Rad51 filament mediator activity, as indicated by Chromatin immunoprecipitation and biochemical analysis. Remarkably, sensitivity to DNA damage of srs2Δ cells can also be overcome by stimulating Rad52 sumoylation through overexpression of the sumo-ligase SIZ2, or by replacing Rad52 by a Rad52-SUMO fusion protein. We propose that, like the rad52-L264P mutation, sumoylation modifies Rad52 activity thereby changing the properties of Rad51 filaments. This conclusion is strengthened by the finding that Rad52 is often associated with complete Rad51 filaments in vitro.