Explanatory theories of electoral fraud are usually developed for new and failing democracies. However, while rarer, electoral fraud does happen in advanced democracies. Because data on fraud in advanced democracies are scarce, single instances of fraud are studied in isolation and offer very little generalisability. This study uses a unique comparative dataset of 35 in-depth, semi-structured interviews from eight locations, only half of which experienced allegations of fraud. We show that theories of why and how fraud happens in developing democracies can be extended to an advanced democracy. We also provide a detailed description of two micro-mechanisms, which facilitate fraud taking place and thus provide a causal link between the structural vulnerability to fraud and the direct opportunities for fraud to take place. The case study of Britain focuses mostly on the biraderi structures within the British South Asian communities, but we offer ways in which these generalise more broadly.
Huge population migration, increasing unemployment and poverty and unhealthy lifestyles (stress, smoking, alcohol consumption, etc)
The last two decades of the twentieth century were difficult ones for health promotion in Serbia. The political, economic and social upheaval resulting from the civil conflict in the former Republic of Yugoslavia put enormous pressure on the health system overall and undermined a previously strong and effective health education and promotion service. In recent years the government, supported by external donors, has refocused attention on the need for high quality public health, including preventive activities as a central goal of the health reform process. This process is reviewed through a case study of a high profile health promotion campaign recently completed within the country. The potential for Serbia to regain its position as an innovator in community-based health care as well as the obstacles to be overcome are analysed.
A prototype Oil-Gas Production Separation Unit, with ancillary equipment typical of that on most process vessels, has been developed and fabricated for operations tests this summer on the sea-floor at an oil well in the Zakum Field in the Arabian Gulf. This paper describes the submerged processing unit in detail as well as the previously reached conclusions which led to its particular design and test philosophy. Also described in summary is the total Zakum subsea test program of Compagnie Francaise Des Petroles and British Petroleum, of which the production processing unit test is a part. This production processing unit can set itself on bottom after being towed to location and is retrievable back to the surface. Gamma ray level controls, a thermo-electric power generator, hydraulic flow line connectors with integral block valves, and a variety of other ancillary devices will be tested on this 15,000 barrel per day oil stream. TEXT Any consideration of oil and gas production from operating centers located beneath the air-sea interface involves a totality of interrelated factors certainly as broad and deep as the ocean itself. The rather complex overlap of data and decisions required, for instance, only to derive a basis for design is shown schematically on Fig. 1. Obviously, there is no reasonable way to isolate any one element of the total problem from all the rest. A limitation of scope is nevertheless required in a specific study or discussion. So, for purposes of this paper, observations are limited to matters relating only to an initial oil and gas processing facility itself. This is the facility which lies between the termination of the well effluent gathering system and the discharge into the processed fluids disposition system. Both from the standpoint of investment and overall technology, this may be a minor part of the total submarine oil and gas producing system. However, this minor part is always the vital "heart element," so to speak. Much theoretical study work relating to submerged oil and gas production processing facilities has been done in the last few years by producers, marine construction contractors, aerospace firms, and process system manufacturers. The primary emphasis has, of course, been on unique or novel design arrangements which appear to meet the requirements of the wet and pressured environment. Much work has also been done to create adaptations of existing techniques and equipment to fit a submerged environment. This latter work, while less publicized, may indeed be more immediately valuable to the industry even than the novelties. In some instances, the theoretical studies have led to models being built and tested in a wet environment as well as plans being developed for appropriate simulations. However, most modeling has been conceptual in nature and productive simulation work depends on further quantification of the problem elements. Out of the studies and modeling, and based on today's state of the art, several basic requirements have become apparent insofar as the production processing element of a totally submerged oil and gas producing system is concerned.
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