Impact of environmental factors such as temperature, dissolved organic matter, ionic strength and clay colloids on the stability of nanoplastics.

Many studies examining the innervation of genitourinary structures focus on either afferent or efferent inputs, or on only one structure of the system. We aimed to clarify innervation of the bladder, external urethral sphincter (EUS) and clitoris. Retrograde dyes were injected into each end organ in female dogs. Spinal cord, mid-bladder, and spinal, caudal mesenteric, sympathetic trunk and pelvic plexus ganglia were examined for retrograde dye-labeled neurons. Neurons retrogradely labeled from the bladder were found primarily in L7-S2 spinal ganglia, spinal cord lateral zona intermedia at S1-S3 levels, caudal mesenteric ganglia, T11-L2 and L6-S2 sympathetic trunk ganglia, and pelvic plexus ganglia. The mid-bladder wall contained many intramural ganglia neurons labeled anterogradely from the pelvic nerve, and intramural ganglia retrogradely labeled from dye labeling sites surrounding ureteral orifices. Neurons retrogradely labeled from the clitoris were found only in L7 and S1 spinal ganglia, L7-S3 spinal cord lateral zona intermedia, and S1 sympathetic trunk ganglia, and caudal mesenteric ganglia. Neurons retrogradely labeled from the EUS were found in primarily at S1 and S2 spinal ganglia, spinal cord lamina IX at S1-S3, caudal mesenteric ganglia, and S1-S2 sympathetic trunk ganglia. Thus, direct inputs from the spinal cord to each end organ were identified, as well as multisynaptic circuits involving several ganglia, including intramural ganglia in the bladder wall. Knowledge of this complex circuitry of afferent and efferent inputs to genitourinary structures is necessary to understand and treat genitourinary dysfunction. Anat Rec, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

OBJECTIVEPrevious patient surveys have shown that patients with spinal cord or cauda equina injuries prioritize recovery of bladder function. The authors sought to determine if nerve transfer after long-term decentralization restores bladder and sphincter function in canines.METHODSTwenty-four female canines were included in this study. Transection of sacral roots and hypogastric nerves (S Dec) was performed in 6 animals, and 7 animals underwent this procedure with additional transection of the L7 dorsal roots (L7d+S Dec). Twelve months later, 3 L7d+S Dec animals underwent obturator-to-pelvic nerve and sciatic-to-pudendal nerve transfers (L7d+S Dec+Reinn). Eleven animals served as controls. Squat-and-void behaviors were tracked before and after decentralization, after reinnervation, and following awake bladder-filling procedures. Bladders were cystoscopically injected with Fluoro-Gold 3 weeks before euthanasia. Immediately before euthanasia, transferred nerves were stimulated to evaluate motor function. Dorsal root ganglia were assessed for retrogradely labeled neurons.RESULTSTransection of only sacral roots failed to reduce squat-and-void postures; L7 dorsal root transection was necessary for significant reduction. Three L7d+S Dec animals showing loss of squat-and-void postures post-decentralization were chosen for reinnervation and recovered these postures 4–6 months after reinnervation. Each showed obturator nerve stimulation–induced bladder contractions and sciatic nerve stimulation–induced anal sphincter contractions immediately prior to euthanasia. One showed sciatic nerve stimulation–induced external urethral sphincter contractions and voluntarily voided twice following nonanesthetized bladder filling. Reinnervation was confirmed by increased labeled cells in L2 and the L4–6 dorsal root ganglia (source of obturator nerve in canines) of L7d+S Dec+Reinn animals, compared with controls.CONCLUSIONSNew neuronal pathways created by nerve transfer can restore bladder sensation and motor function in lower motor neuron–lesioned canines even 12 months after decentralization.

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Bladder smooth muscle cells maintain their function after long-term bladder decentralization. While pelvic plexus-induced bladder contractions were less robust at 1 year after lower spinal root transection, the absence of atrophy and preservation of at least some nerve activity may allow for successful surgical reinnervation after long-term injury.