Researchers have shown considerable interest in finding a sustainable, low cost, and readily available substitute for the commercial calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst. In this work, raw chicken eggshell was modified by boiling and calcination at 900 C for 3 h. The x-ray diffraction characterization revealed that while the proportion of CaCO 3 in the raw and boiled samples was found to be 79.3 % and 99.2 % respectively, the CaCO 3 had been converted to 63.8 % CaO and CO 2 in the calcined sample. This was due to the thermal decomposition during calcination. The outcome of the infrared spectroscopy showed that the raw and boiled chicken eggshell presented a similar absorption profile with peaks at 1 394 cm À1 , 873 cm À1 , and 712 cm À1 , which were as a result of the presence of asymmetric stretch, out-of-plane bend, and in-plane bend vibration modes. The major peaks presented by the calcined sample at 3642 cm À1 can be attributed to the OAH stretching vibration and bending hydroxyl groups present in Ca(OH) 2 . The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface areas for the raw, boiled and calcined chicken eggshell were found to be 2.33 m 2 /g, 3.26 m 2 /g, and 4.6 m 2 /g respectively, indicating increased catalytic activity of the calcined sample. Overall, boiling was found to have a negligible effect on the chicken eggshell, while hightemperature calcination greatly affected the pore size, surface area, composition, and thermal decomposition profile of the chicken eggshell sample.

Vegetable oils have been used as a feedstock for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) production. The high cost of neat vegetable oil and its impact on food security have necessitated its replacement as a feedstock for FAME by used vegetable oil, also known as waste cooking oil (WCO). This study compares the properties and fatty acid (FA) compositions of samples of neat vegetable oil with those of samples of WCO, collected from restaurants and takeaway outlets at the point of disposal. The samples were subjected to property determination and pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometer (PYGCMS) analysis. Analysis showed that degree of usage and the type of food items originally fried in the oil substantially affected its properties and FA composition. Density of neat vegetable oil varied between 904.3 and 919.7 kg/m3 and of WCO between 904.3 and 923.2 kg/m3. The pH of neat vegetable oil varied between 7.38 and 8.63 and of WCO between 5.13 and 6.61. The PYGCMS analysis showed that neat palm oil contains 87.7% unsaturated FA and 12.3% saturated FA, whereas neat sunfoil contains 74.37% saturated FA and 25% polyunsaturated FA. Generally, neat vegetable oils consisted mainly of saturated FAs and polyunsaturated FAs, whereas the WCO contained mainly of saturated FAs and monounsaturated FAs. This research confirms the suitability of WCO as feedstock for FAME.

Biofuel, a cost-effective, safe, and environmentally benign fuel produced from renewable sources, has been accepted as a sustainable replacement and a panacea for the damaging effects of the exploration for and consumption of fossil-based fuels. The current work examines the classification, generation, and utilization of biofuels, particularly in internal combustion engine (ICE) applications. Biofuels are classified according to their physical state, technology maturity, the generation of feedstock, and the generation of products. The methods of production and the advantages of the application of biogas, bioalcohol, and hydrogen in spark ignition engines, as well as biodiesel, Fischer–Tropsch fuel, and dimethyl ether in compression ignition engines, in terms of engine performance and emission are highlighted. The generation of biofuels from waste helps in waste minimization, proper waste disposal, and sanitation. The utilization of biofuels in ICEs improves engine performance and mitigates the emission of poisonous gases. There is a need for appropriate policy frameworks to promote commercial production and seamless deployment of these biofuels for transportation applications with a view to guaranteeing energy security.

Feedstock is one of the key resources for the production of hydrogenation derived renewable diesel (HDRD). Used cooking oil is a waste oil generated from vegetable oil after frying and can be easily sourced from domestic, restaurant outlet and food processing industries within the Durban metropolis. The right selection of feedstock contributes to the high yield and quality of HDRD. Current works on several vegetable oil sources for potential feedstock applications are reviewed. Good quality and optimal yields of HDRD can be obtained by proper selection of potential feedstock, the right catalyst, and optimal process parameters for desirable reaction pathway etc. The literature on vegetable oil as potential feedstock is discussed. Literature regarding the selection of catalysts for hydrogenation is reviewed. Biomass-based thermal power plants fly ash (BBTPPFS) and calcium oxide sourced from eggshell are identified as viable catalysts for the HDRD process.

Research into finding an affordable, renewable, biodegradable and environmentally friendly alternative fuel to power compression ignition engine has been intensified in the past few decades. The application of waste palm oil (WPO) as feedstock for biodiesel has gained traction and has led to a decline in the production cost of biodiesel, and prevents the contamination of aquatic and terrestrial habitats. The present effort is geared towards characterization of neat palm oil (NPO), WPO and waste palm oil methyl ester (WPOME) through Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Derivative thermogravimetric (DTG), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Samples of NPO and WPO were collected from takeaway outlets. The WPO was converted into WPOME by transesterification. The outcome of DTG analysis showed that the vaporization of NPO, WPO, and WPOME occurred between 320 °C and 480 °C; 320 °C and 470 °C, and 27 °C and 103 °C respectively. The TGA analysis revealed that NPO, WPO, and WPOME exhibited similar thermal degradation trend and lost 98 %, 29 %, and 63 % of their weight respectively, during the one stage of thermal degradation. The spectra curve for NPO and WPO followed the same trend and achieve peaks at nearly the same wavelength of 1743 cm−1 while the peculiar peak of the spectra curve for WPOME occurred at 1022 cm−1. In conclusion, this work reinforces that usage and transesterification alters the thermal degradation and spectroscopic pattern of palm oil.