Background: Male suicide rates continued to increase in Scotland when rates in England and Wales declined. Female rates decreased, but at a slower rate than in England and Wales. Previous work has suggested higher than average rates in some rural areas of Scotland. This paper describes trends in suicide and undetermined death in Scotland by age, gender, geographical area and method for 1981 -1999.

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Introduction: Suicide rates among men have increased in Scotland while falling in neighbouring countries. A national suicide prevention strategy has been produced. Previous work found that some rural areas of Scotland had higher than average rates of male suicide and undetermined deaths. This article describes the association between population density and suicide and undetermined death rates in Scotland.Methods: Anonymised information on deaths from suicide and undetermined cause in Scotland were obtained from the General Registrar Office for 1981-1999, including information on postcode sector. Each postcode sector was assigned a deprivation and population density score. Loglinear models were used to examine the effects of time period (grouped into four periods), deprivation quintiles, population density (grouped into four categories) and their interactions in each sex in three age groups. A significance level of 5% was used throughout. Adjusted rate ratios and 95% confidence intervals were based on models that included only significant factors and interactions.Results: In men, there were higher rate ratios in the most densely populated and least densely populated quartiles, with intermediate rate ratios in other areas. There was no association with population density in women aged less than 25 years, a similar pattern to men in 25-44 year old women, and lower rates in rural areas in older women. Higher levels of deprivation were associated with higher rate ratios of suicide in both sexes and all age groups. Rate ratios over time increased in younger men and women, remained stable in older men, and declined in older women.Conclusions: Deprivation is associated with higher rates of suicide and undetermined deaths at all levels of population density and in all age groups. The highest rates of suicide among men are in the most and least densely populated areas, after adjusting for

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The literature suggests that among the complex factors differentiating academically failing from succeeding university students are those of unsatisfactory social habits. The hypotheses that unsuccessful students show an inadequate personal‐social orientation and that the underlying dimensions may be identified by factor analysis were tested using 2 criterion groups, each of 64 full‐time Australian university students. The California Test of Personality, with additional biographical items, was administered. The hypotheses were confirmed. Empirical analysis of results showed that Failing students may be classified in overlapping sub‐groups demonstrating heterogeneous characteristics summarized as (a) extraverted over‐reactivity, (b) low study motivation, and (c) social maladjustment; i.e., inadequate social habits rather than neurotic symptoms. Factor analysis points to a “failing orientation” which may be attributed to a sub‐cultural clash between social skills, habits and attitudes learned in the home, and those appropriate in the academic environment.