BackgroundPeople often search for information on influenza A(H1N1)v prevention on the web. The extent to which information found on the Internet is consistent with recommendations issued by the World Health Organization is unknown.MethodsWe conducted a search for "swine flu" accessing 3 of the most popular search engines through different proxy servers located in 4 English-speaking countries (Australia, Canada, UK, USA). We explored each site resulting from the searches, up to 4 clicks starting from the search engine page, analyzing availability of World Health Organization recommendations for swine flu prevention.ResultsInformation on hand cleaning was reported on 79% of the 147 websites analyzed; staying home when sick was reported on 77.5% of the websites; disposing tissues after sneezing on 75.5% of the websites. Availability of other recommendations was lower. The probability of finding preventative recommendations consistent with World Health Organization varied by country, type of website, and search engine.ConclusionsDespite media coverage on H1N1 influenza, relevant information for prevention is not easily found on the web. Strategies to improve information delivery to the general public through this channel should be improved.

The study of the European plethodontid salamander Hydromantes strinatii using allozyme and mitochondrial markers showed a strong geographical genetic structure. This was likely the outcome of different evolutionary mechanisms leaving their signature despite the effects of the genetic drift due to the low population size typical of this species. Two highly divergent clades were identified in the eastern and central-western part of the range, with further geographic sub-structure. Nuclear and mitochondrial markers substantially recovered the same population groups but were conflicting in reconstructing their relationships. This apparent incongruence highlighted the action of different mechanisms such as secondary contacts and incomplete lineage sorting in originating the observed genetic variation. The troglophilic habit of this species provided the opportunity to show the importance of caves as local refugia in maintaining the genetic diversity through the persistence of local populations. Accordingly, high nucleotide and haplotype diversity, strong geographic genetic structuring and lack of expansion were evidenced. This signature was found in the populations from the Ligurian and Maritime Alps, in agreement with the complex orography and paleoclimatic history of this Mediterranean hotspot.

Geographic range size and genetic diversity are key correlates of extinction risk and evolutionary potential of a species, with species occupying smaller geographic ranges and showing limited genetic diversity assumed to be more threatened by environmental changes. The Italian Aesculapian snake Zamenis lineatus is a narrow‐range endemic of southern Italy and Sicily, once considered as part of the widespread species Z. longissimus. To date, we still lack comprehensive data on geographic range and intraspecific diversity of Z. lineatus. In this study, we analysed 106 Aesculapian snakes across the Italian Peninsula and Sicily in order to define the genetic diversity and distribution range of Z. lineatus, its possible range overlap with Z. longissimus and to assess whether hybridization occurs at the species’ range boundaries. We combined genetic data from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers with phenotypic data suitable for taxonomic identification. The observed phylogeographic pattern of Z. lineatus suggests: (i) a reduced peninsular range size, about a half of what is currently considered; (ii) limited genetic diversity and weak population structure; (iii) the occurrence of pervasive introgressive hybridization with Z. longissimus in the eastern contact zone. Together, results from this study indicate a higher extinction risk for Z. lineatus than previously appreciated and provide directions for future studies on the hybridization at the contact zone(s) between Z. lineatus and Z. longissimus.

Thirty years ago, in 1983, an experiment of artificial syntopy put together two allopatric taxa of mainland European plethodontids: Hydromantes ambrosii ambrosii and H. italicus. An equal number of specimens of both species were released in a cave with a suitable environment but located outside the range of the genus. The aim was to test the effectiveness of the reproductive isolating mechanisms of these two moderately divergent taxa and, in the case hybridization would have occurred, to analyse the extent and mechanisms of introgressive hybridization while in progress. Previous data collected between 1996 and 1999 showed that H. italicus and H. a. ambrosii were hybridizing and that their hybrids were viable and fertile enough to produce backcrosses. The data presented here, based on allozymes and restriction enzymes on a fragment of the mitochondrial Cytochrome-b gene, showed that introgressive hybridization is still ongoing. However, the gene exchange between the two taxa is restricted since most of the specimens scored were pure H. a. ambrosii, the percentage of hybrid/recombinant specimens was quite low and a strong deficiency of hétérozygote genotypes was recorded.The results presented showed that this long term experiment assisted in providing insights into the patterns and mechanisms underlying hybridization and introgression, showing the spreading of a foreign mtDNA (H. italicus) into the gene pool of another species (H. a. ambrosii) despite the fact that the nuclear genomes remain substantially differentiated.

This study reports the presence of two distinct MHC class II β genes in the Antarctic icefish Chionodraco hamatus , belonging to the classical (ChhaDAB) and nonclassical (ChhaDBB) evolutionary lineages. By the application of targeted sequencing approach, a remarkable molecular diversity in the exon 2 sequence of the highly expressed gene ChhaDAB has been observed, resulting in an estimate of 92 different variants translated in 87 different peptides from 54 analysed icefish individuals. A highly conservative estimate, based on a 95% sequence identity threshold clustering, translate this variability in 41 different peptide clusters belonging to four different clades and showing the signature of different kinds of selection. In stark contrast, the poorly expressed ChhaDBB gene displayed a very low level of molecular diversity within exon 2, in agreement with expectations for a nonclassical MHC class II β gene.