Staling of bread is cause of significant product waste in the world. We reviewed the literature of the last 10 y with the aim to give an up-to-date overview on processing/storage parameters, antistaling ingredients, sourdough technology, and measurement methods of the staling phenomenon. Many researchers have been focusing their interest on the selection of ingredients able to retard staling, mainly hydrocolloids, waxy wheat flours (WWF), and enzymes, but different efforts have been made to understand the molecular basis of bread staling with the help of various measurement methods. Results obtained confirm the central role of amylopectin retrogradation and water redistribution within the different polymers in determining bread staling, but highlighted also the importance of other flour constituents, such as proteins and nonstarch polysaccharides. Data obtained with thermal, spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, X-ray crystallography, and colorimetry analysis have pointed out the need to encourage the use of one or more of these techniques in order to better understand the mechanisms of staling. Results so far obtained have provided new insight on bread staling, but the phenomenon has not been fully elucidated so far.

Following the boom in durum wheat breeding, ancient wheat disappeared from the human diet and old durum wheat varieties were replaced by what is believed to be their better versions: higher yielding modern varieties grown in high-input systems. Breeders have worked intensely ever since to improve the quality of durum wheat traits -mainly gluten subunit alleles -to obtain superior technological quality in the main durum wheat end products (first pasta and then bread) but conflicts about predicting their quality still exist. This is because quality is neither governed by one trait alone nor conditioned by a single controllable factor. This review discusses the evolution of wheat varieties from ancient to old, and then modern durum wheat in terms of agronomy, genetics, technological, and end-product qualities. Environmental effects will not be discussed. Moving from ancient to modern durum wheat varieties, grain yield increased, grain protein concentration decreased, and gluten strength and dough toughness improved, ameliorating the quality of pasta but decreasing the durum wheat versatility.

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Wheat flour replacement from 22.5% up to 45% by incorporation of ternary blends of teff (T), 25 green pea (GP) and buckwheat (BW) flours provided technologically viable and acceptable sensory rated 26 multigrain breads with superior nutritional value compared to the 100% wheat flour (WT) counterparts. 27Blended breads exhibited superior nutritional composition, larger amounts of bioaccessible polyphenols, 28 higher anti-radical activity, and lower and slower starch digestibility. Simultaneous lower rapidly digestible 29 starch (57.1%) and higher slowly digestible starch (12.9%) and resistant starch (2.8%) contents (g per 100 g 30 fresh bread), considered suitable nutritional trends for dietary starch fractions, were met by the blend 31 formulated 7.5% T, 15% GP, 15% BK. The associated mixture that replaced 37.5% WT, showed a rather 32 lower extent and slower rate of starch hydrolysis with medium-low values for C∞, and H90, and lowest k, and 33 intermediate expected Glycaemic Index (86). All multigrain breads can be labelled as source of dietary fibre 34 (≥3 g dietary fibre/100 g bread). A slow release and absorption of glucose may be generated in a food matrix according to the 56 processing conditions and surrounding ingredients (Lehmann & Robin, 2007), encompassing beneficial 57 effects in the management of diabetes and hyperlipidemia (Jenkins, 2007). Native cereal starches are ideal 58 sources of slowly digestible starch (SDS) (>50%), and the slow progressive digestion property is realized by 59 a layer-by-layer inside-outside (radial) digestion process (Zhang, Ao, & Hamaker., 2006a). Mechanical and 60 thermal treatments change the structure and digestibility of starch. Thermal treatments such as the cooking 61 process completely destroys the semicrystalline structure of native starch granules and causes the loss of 62 SDS and resistant starch (RS) and increases rapid digestible starch (RDS) (Zhang, Venkatachalam, & 63 Hamaker, 2006b). In cereal products, the starch gelatinisation extent, which is mainly controlled by the 64 moisture level and the cooking time and temperature influences the formation of SDS (Englyst, Vinory, 65 Englyst, & Lang, 2003). In bread dough, although formation of resistant starch (RS3) may occur in the high 66 water-containing parts during cooling, a large portion of starch is gelatinised during cooking and induces a 67 rapid digestibility of starch (Bravo, Englyst, & Hudson, 1998). In extruded cooked cereal products such as 68 breakfast cereals, in addition to the thermal treatment, the high pressure and shear forces destroy the 69 starch granular structure and increase its gelatinisation extent, making it more available to amylolytic 70 enzymes (Le François, 1989). On the contrary, in pasta, a dense protein network is formed, which limits the 71 accessibility of α-amylase to the starch and restricts the diffusion of water molecules to the starch granules. 72 4 As a consequence, a reduction of the extent of starch gelatinisation takes place (Englyst et al., 1992). 73Fu...

The deliberate inoculation of yeast strains isolated from food matrices such as wine or bread, could allow the transfer of novel properties to beer. In this work, the feasibility of the use of baker's yeast strains as starters for craft beer production has been evaluated at laboratory and brewery scale. Nine out of 12 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from artisanal sourdoughs metabolized 2 % maltose, glucose and trehalose and showed growth rates and cell populations higher than those of the brewer's strain Safbrew-S33. Analysis of allelic variation at 12 microsatellite loci clustered seven baker's strains and Safbrew-S33 in the main group of bread isolates. Chemical analyses of beers produced at a brewery scale showed significant differences among the beers produced with the baker's strain S38 or Safbrew-S33, while no significant differences were observed when S38 or the brewer's strain Safbrew-F2 was used for re-fermentation. The sensory profile of beers obtained with S38 or the brewer's yeasts did not show significant differences, thus suggesting that baker's strains of S. cerevisiae could represent a reservoir of biodiversity for the selection of starter strains for craft beer production.