The Coronavirus Disease 2019 , caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus-2, was first reported in December 2019. The World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a pandemic on March 11, 2020 and as of April 17, 2020, 210 countries are affected with >2,000,000 infected and 140,000 deaths. The estimated case fatality rate is around 6.7%. We need to step up our infection control measures immediately or else it may be too late to contain or control the spread of COVID-19. In case of local outbreaks, the risk of infection to healthcare workers and patients is high. Ophthalmic practice carries some unique risks and therefore high vigilance and special precautions are needed. We share our protocols and experiences in the prevention of infection in the current COVID-19 outbreak and the previous severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic in Hong Kong. We also endeavor to answer the key frequently asked questions in areas of the coronaviruses, COVID-19, disease transmission, personal protection, mask selection, and special measures in ophthalmic practices. COVID-19 is highly infectious and could be life-threatening. Using our protocol and measures, we have achieved zero infection in our ophthalmic practices in Hong Kong and China. Preventing spread of COVID-19 is possible and achievable.

The World Health Organization declared the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 a “Pandemic” on March 11, 2020. As of June 1, 2020, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 has infected >6.2 million people and caused >372,000 deaths, including many health care personnel. It is highly infectious and ophthalmologists are at a higher risk of the infection due to a number of reasons including the proximity between doctors and patients during ocular examinations, microaerosols generated by the noncontact tonometer, tears as a potential source of infection, and some COVID-19 cases present with conjunctivitis. This article describes the ocular manifestations of COVID-19 and the APAO guidelines in mitigating the risks of contracting and/or spreading COVID-19 in ophthalmic practices.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) came under the attention of the international medical community when China first notified the World Health Organization of a pneumonia outbreak of then-unknown etiology in Wuhan in December 2019. Since then, COVID-19 caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has appalled the world by spreading at a pandemic speed. Although ophthalmologists do not directly engage in the clinical care of COVID-19 patients, the ophthalmology community has become aware of the close ties between its practice and the pandemic. Not only are ophthalmologists at heightened risk of SARS-CoV-2 exposure due to their physical proximity with patients in routine ophthalmic examinations, but SARS-CoV-2 possesses ocular tropism resulting in ocular complications beyond the respiratory tract after viral exposure. Furthermore, patients could potentially suffer from adverse ocular effects in the therapeutic process. This review summarized the latest literature to cover the ophthalmic manifestations, effects of treatments, and vaccinations on the eye to aid the frontline clinicians in providing effective ophthalmic care to COVID-19 patients as the pandemic continues to evolve.

Innate immunity is the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Innate immune cells can recognize invading pathogens through recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). The recognition of PAMPs by PRRs triggers immune defense mechanisms and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. However, sustained and overwhelming activation of immune system may disrupt immune homeostasis and contribute to inflammatory disorders. Immunomodulators targeting PRRs may be beneficial to treat infectious diseases and their associated complications. However, therapeutic performances of immunomodulators can be negatively affected by (1) high immune-mediated toxicity, (2) poor solubility and (3) bioactivity loss after long circulation. Recently, nanocarriers have emerged as a very promising tool to overcome these obstacles owning to their unique properties such as sustained circulation, desired bio-distribution, and preferred pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. In this review, we aim to provide an up-to-date overview on the strategies and applications of nanocarrier-assisted innate immune modulation for the management of infections and their associated complications. We first summarize examples of important innate immune modulators. The types of nanomaterials available for drug delivery, as well as their applications for the delivery of immunomodulatory drugs and vaccine adjuvants are also discussed.