Figure 1 The unadjusted correlation between the state-level Gini index and the number of COVID-19 cases (a) and deaths (b).

Ewing sarcoma is the second most common bone cancer in pediatric patients. Although the primary cause of death in Ewing sarcoma is metastasis, the mechanism underlying tumor spread needs to be elucidated. To this end, the role of the CXCR4/SDF-1a chemokine axis as a mediator of Ewing sarcoma metastasis was investigated. CXCR4 expression status was measured in primary tumor specimens by immunohistochemical (IHC) staining and in multiple cell lines by quantitative RT-PCR and flow cytometry. Migration and invasion of CXCR4-positive Ewing sarcoma cells towards CXCL12/SDF-1a were also determined. Interestingly, while CXCR4 status was disparate among Ewing sarcoma cells, ranging from absent to high-level expression; its expression was found to be highly dynamic and responsive to changes in the microenvironment. In particular, up-regulation of CXCR4 occurred in cells that were subjected to growth factor deprivation, hypoxia, and space constraints. This up-regulation of CXCR4 was rapidly reversed upon removal of the offending cellular stress conditions. Functionally, CXCR4-positive cells migrated and invaded towards an SDF-1a gradient and these aggressive properties were impeded by both the CXCR4 small molecule inhibitor AMD3100, and by knockdown of CXCR4. In addition, CXCR4-dependent migration and invasion were inhibited by small molecule inhibitors of Cdc42 and Rac1, mechanistically implicating these Rho-GTPases as downstream mediators of the CXCR4-dependent phenotype.

Ewing sarcoma (ES) is an aggressive bone and soft tissue tumor of putative stem cell origin that predominantly occurs in children and young adults. Although most patients with localized ES can be cured with intensive therapy, the clinical course is variable and up to one third of patients relapse following initial remission. Unfortunately, little is yet known about the biologic features that distinguish low-risk from high-risk disease or the mechanisms of ES disease progression. Recent reports have suggested that putative cancer stem cells exist in ES and may contribute to an aggressive phenotype. The cell surface receptor leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 5 (LGR5) is a somatic stem cell marker that functions as an oncogene in several human cancers, most notably colorectal carcinoma. LGR5 is a receptor for the R-spondin (RSPO) family of ligands and RSPO-mediated activation of LGR5 potentiates Wnt/β-catenin signaling, contributing to stem cell proliferation and self-renewal. Given its presumed stem cell origin, we investigated whether LGR5 contributes to ES pathogenesis. We found that LGR5 is expressed by ES and that its expression is relatively increased in cells and tumors that display a more aggressive phenotype. In particular, LGR5 expression was increased in putative cancer stem cells. We also found that neural crest-derived stem cells express LGR5, raising the possibility that expression of LGR5 may be a feature of ES cells of origin. LGR5-high ES cells showed nuclear localization of β-catenin and robust activation of TCF reporter activity when exposed to Wnt ligand and this was potentiated by RSPO. However, modulation of LGR5 or exposure to RSPO had no impact on proliferation confirming that Wnt/β-catenin signaling in ES cells does not recapitulate signaling in epithelial cells. Together these studies show that the RSPO-LGR5-Wnt-β-catenin axis is present and active in ES and may contribute to tumor pathogenesis.

Adenomyosis appears to be associated with less aggressive tumor behavior of endometrial cancer, suggesting that it may have inhibitory effects on the progression of this disease.