This work was undertaken within the Land Preparedness Studies Task (ARM 01/059) within the Land Operations Division. It is in response to the request for DSTO support contained within the Terms of Reference for the Army Ammunition Study (AAS). This request was for DSTO to assist in developing a better understanding of skill degradation (retention) and acquisition, with the view that this would enable accurate prediction of training requirements and, in the longer term, develop tools to predict levels of proficiency provided by different training regimes.In summary we:• Took a systems approach to the training problem and assessed the impact of the treatment of skill acquisition and degradation of predictions of training frequency requirements.• Undertook a literature survey, concentrating on the Cognitive Psychological literature, to ascertain the current thinking on how people learn and forget.• Assessed the gaps in the literature and scoped the work needed to address these gaps.• Made some progress in developing a new approach to modelling retention.• Assessed how DSTO, or other S&T agencies, could further address the issues raised by the AAS in both the short and long terms, through the development of appropriate R&D programmes. RELEASE LIMITATION Approved for public release^DEPARTMENT OF DEFENcT This work is aimed at developing a better understanding of skill acquisition and degradation (retention), to enable accurate prediction of training requirements. It also provides a start for the development of tools to predict levels of proficiency provided by different training regimes.The representation of skill acquisition and retention, within training/resource models, is shown to greatly influence model outputs. Therefore, at the heart of any modelling effort is an understanding of how proficiency is achieved and lost (skill acquisition and retention).We review the cognitive psychology literature on learning and retention, in order to establish what is the current understanding of skill acquisition and retention. The review covers two broad areas. First, the factors affecting skill acquisition and retention, and second, the mathematical description of the rate of skill acquisition and retention.The rate of skill retention, within the field of psychology, is currently accepted to be best fit by a power function. However, there are several significant difficulties encountered when using the power function in a dynamic model. We suggest an alternative model of retention, using a System Dynamic framework, which is suitable for dynamic modelling. This model requires more development and validation to assess its robustness.Gaps found in the literature, in areas pertinent to the understanding skill retention and acquisition in the Army context, include relearning and the change in skill retention from novice to expert, and moving from individual to collective skills. The System Dynamics model potentially addresses the relearning issue. Of interest is the effect of initial over-training on long term retention, an...

The Problem The learning organization is a term frequently used to reflect a set of ideas that have been around for some time-that is, successful adaptation to change and uncertainty is more likely to occur through the learning efforts of both individuals, and the organization as a whole. The term, however, has become a common phrase for describing a host of approaches to organizational development and activity occurring within organizations; however little space has been dedicated to the application of learning organization ideas and practices within military institutions. Given the diversity that exists within many large organizations, it is surprising how little attention has been given to the significance of learning in terms of hierarchy and rank within the learning organization discourse. The Solution Drawing on data collected from 1,061 respondents, this article compares and contrasts the learning cultures of a selection of headquarters and brigades within the Australian Army, and considers the extent to which their respective learning cultures align with those described as learning organizations. Results suggest that headquarter and brigade elements express similar learning behaviors to those found in learning organizations. However, respective learning cultures differ according to a variety of organizational factors including functional roles, leadership styles, and rank.

Implications for nurse managers include the need for managers to engage in regular conversations regarding systemic barriers to performance and implementing performance management as an ongoing dialogue designed for employee voice and relationship management. This process also suggests a need for leadership development in nursing management. Using such steps and strategies would significantly enhance best practice in nursing management.

Purpose This paper aims to understand the effects of team power asymmetry (hierarchy) on team learning. Design/methodology/approach Literature suggests that power asymmetry can hurt team learning due to unequal interactions. The authors integrate the situated focus theory of power and the theory of adversarial growth to propose that environmental hardship can moderate this relationship. Such that, under environmental hardship there is a shift in power relations within hierarchical teams, such that power asymmetry positively relates to team learning via increased team egalitarianism (interactional equality). Findings The study is presented in two parts. Part 1 reviews the literature and builds the theoretical arguments for the conceptual model, while Part 2 empirically examines the model on a sample of military teams. In Part 1, the authors propose a theoretically derived model and directions for future research in team power, dynamics and learning. Research limitations/implications It provides directions to empirically validate a contingency-based model to resolve the dilemma of creating equality and high levels of team learning in hierarchical teams. Originality/value The conceptual model and hypotheses contribute to the team learning literature by theoretically clarifying the conditions under which power asymmetry is likely to improve team learning.