Coffee pulp is a by-product generated during coffee processing, producing environmental pollution when discarded in rivers. The revalorization of coffee by-products is currently being studied due to their high potential as new value-added food ingredients. This work aims to explore the chemical composition and functional properties of coffee pulp and validate its safety for use as a novel food ingredient. Coffee pulp composition was assessed following the standard methods (AOAC). Physicochemical properties, total phenolic compounds (TPC), antioxidant capacity, hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic properties were determined using in vitro techniques. Acute and sub-chronic oral toxicity experiments were carried out following OECD Test Guidelines 452 and 408. Coffee pulp showed a high content of dietary fiber (51.2%), highlighting the insoluble fraction. Proteins (9.2%) and lipids (2.6%) were considered a min fraction. Coffee pulp presented high content of TPC (40.6 mg g−1), of which 29% were linked to DF, giving coffee pulp its antioxidant potential (102.3 mg Trolox eq g−1). The by-product showed good physicochemical properties. Coffee pulp reduced the absorption of cholesterol (84%) and bile salts (85%), inhibited pancreatic lipase (64%), and presented the capacity to diminish the diffusion of glucose (34%). The intake of coffee pulp did not cause significant lesions in vital organs. In conclusion, the coffee pulp could be used as a potential ingredient with beneficial health properties.
Numerous residues, such as the coffee pulp, are generated throughout coffee processing. This by-product is a source of antioxidant phytochemicals, including phenolic compounds and caffeine. However, the antioxidant properties of the phenolic compounds from the coffee pulp are physiologically limited to their bioaccessibility, bioavailability, and biotransformation occurring during gastrointestinal digestion. Hence, this study explored the phenolic and caffeine profile in the coffee pulp flour (CPF) and extract (CPE), their intestinal bioaccessibility through in vitro digestion, and their potential bioavailability and colonic metabolism using in silico models. The CPE exhibited a higher concentration of phenolic compounds than the CPF, mainly phenolic acids (protocatechuic, chlorogenic, and gallic acids), followed by flavonoids, particularly quercetin derivatives. Caffeine was found in higher concentrations than phenolic compounds. The antioxidant capacity was increased throughout the digestive process. The coffee pulp matrix influenced phytochemicals’ behavior during gastrointestinal digestion. Whereas individual phenolic compounds generally decreased during digestion, caffeine remained stable. Then, phenolic acids and caffeine were highly bioaccessible, while flavonoids were mainly degraded. As a result, caffeine and protocatechuic acid were the main compounds absorbed in the intestine after digestion. Non-absorbed phenolic compounds might undergo colonic biotransformation yielding small and potentially more adsorbable phenolic metabolites. These results contribute to establishing the coffee pulp as an antioxidant food ingredient since it contains bioaccessible and potentially bioavailable phytochemicals with potential health-promoting properties.
The cocoa shell is a by-product generated by the cocoa processing industry that could be used as a nutraceutical owing to the significant amounts of bioactive compounds it contains. This work aimed to study the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds present in the flour (CSF) and an aqueous extract (CSE) from cocoa shells through an in vitro simulated digestion and to assess their antioxidant capacity in vitro by using intestinal and hepatic cell culture models (IEC-6 and HepG2 cells). The bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds was determined using a simulated in vitro digestion model (INFOGEST). Total phenolic compounds (TPC) and antioxidant activity were measured using in vitro techniques. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were evaluated in IEC-6 and HepG2 cells after t-BOOH stimulation. TPC present in CSE were more bioaccessible than phenolic compounds present in CSF. During digestion, the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds from CSF fluctuated in the gastric (2.8 mg/g), intestinal (7.6 mg/g), and colonic (5.7 mg/g) phases. Similarly, for the phenolics of CSE, the bioaccessibility increased from 50.6 mg/g in the gastric phase to 53.4 mg/g in the intestinal phase and decreased in the colonic phase to 37.2 mg/g. The in vitro antioxidant capacity followed a similar behavior, increasing throughout the digestion in CSF (8.8- to 10.6-fold) and CSE (6.0- to 7.4-fold). Digested CSF and CSE were not cytotoxic for IEC-6 and HepG2 cells and protected their viability under oxidative stress conditions (93–100%). t-BOOH-induced ROS were prevented by CSF (72–88%) and CSE (81–94%) bioaccessible fractions in both intestinal and hepatic cells. In conclusion, cocoa shells are a source of potentially bioavailable antioxidant phenolic compounds that may protect cells from oxidative stress.
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