Brazil has a variety of aquatic ecosystems and rich freshwater biodiversity, but these components have been constantly damaged by the expansion of unsustainable activities. An array of different conservation strategies is needed, especially the creation of protected areas (PAs, hereafter). However, Brazil's PAs are biased towards terrestrial ecosystems and we argue that current PAs have limited efficacy in the protection of freshwater biodiversity. New PAs should better consider aquatic environments, covering entire basins, rivers and other freshwater habitats. We recommend ways to implement these PAs and provide guidance to avoid social impacts. Freshwater systems in Brazil provide essential goods and services but these ecosystems are being rapidly degraded and will be lost if not adequately protected.

Aim We used chelonian distribution data to (1) predict suitable areas of the occurrence for freshwater turtle species using species distribution models and (2) evaluate whether these species are protected by the current network of protected areas (PAs).Location The Brazilian Amazon.Methods We generated predictions of suitable areas for chelonian occurrence based on BIOCLIM, SVM, GLM and maximum entropy modelling procedures. We used maximum entropy to run the gap analysis and compared the effectiveness of three kinds of protected areas with different levels of protection: (1) integral protection areas (IPA) only; (2) integral protection areas + sustainable use areas (IPA+SUA); and (3) integral protection areas + sustainable use areas + indigenous lands (IPA + SUA + IL).Results We identified only one full gap species, Mesoclemmys nasuta, whose distribution is not included in any PAs. Other chelonian species have at least a portion of their distribution included in PAs. Some protected species and partial gap species occur in areas with high rates of deforestation. Considering PAs with the highest level of protection (IPA), only Rhinoclemmys punctularia and Kinosternon scorpioides achieve their conservation targets. In the IPA + SUA scenario, conservation targets of some species with small range sizes are not achieved. When all PA types were considered (IPA + SUA + IL), only two species fail to achieve their conservation targets, Acanthochelys macrocephala and M. nasuta.Main conclusions Despite the large number of PAs in the Brazilian Amazon, IPAs alone are not sufficient for capturing suitable areas for freshwater turtles. The inclusion of SUA and IL is crucial for achieving coverage targets for most species. However, chelonians may be overharvested in SUAs and ILs, due to their importance as a food resource. Areas that have high turtle richness next to existing PAs and the needs of traditional cultures should be considered in management planning for freshwater turtles.

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There is a long history of exploitation of the South American river turtle Podocnemis expansa. Conservation efforts for this species started in the 1960s but best practices were not established, and population trends and the number of nesting females protected remained unknown. In 2014 we formed a working group to discuss conservation strategies and to compile population data across the species’ range. We analysed the spatial pattern of its abundance in relation to human and natural factors using multiple regression analyses. We found that > 85 conservation programmes are protecting 147,000 nesting females, primarily in Brazil. The top six sites harbour > 100,000 females and should be prioritized for conservation action. Abundance declines with latitude and we found no evidence of human pressure on current turtle abundance patterns. It is presently not possible to estimate the global population trend because the species is not monitored continuously across the Amazon basin. The number of females is increasing at some localities and decreasing at others. However, the current size of the protected population is well below the historical population size estimated from past levels of human consumption, which demonstrates the need for concerted global conservation action. The data and management recommendations compiled here provide the basis for a regional monitoring programme among South American countries.

ABSTRACT. The diet of the benthic-feeding fish Iheringichthys labrosus (Lütken, 1874) was analyzed. Samples were taken bimonthly from December 1999 to January 2002, in three sites of the Ibicuí River, a tributary of Uruguay River basin (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil). In each sampling point the specimens were collected in lentic and lotic environments. Gillnets and trammel nets were examined every 6 hours (6h, 12h, 18h and 24h). Diet description was based on the frequency of occurrence and the volume of each food item to obtain the Alimentary Index (IAi). The average stomach fullness was adopted to detect variations in the feeding activity according to the season, the circadian rhythm and the environment. Chironomids were the most important food item, followed by mollusks, and feeding activity was highest in summer, during daylight (6h and 12h), and in the lotic environment of the second sampling point.