Proteins and ligands sample a conformational ensemble that governs molecular recognition, activity, and dissociation. In structure-based drug design, access to this conformational ensemble is critical to understand the balance between entropy and enthalpy in lead optimization. However, ligand conformational heterogeneity is currently severely underreported in crystal structures in the Protein Data Bank, owing in part to a lack of automated and unbiased procedures to model an ensemble of protein-ligand states into X-ray data. Here, we designed a computational method, qFit-ligand, to automatically resolve conformationally averaged ligand heterogeneity in crystal structures, and applied it to a large set of protein receptor-ligand complexes. In an analysis of the cancer related BRD4 domain, we found that up to 29% of protein crystal structures bound with drug-like molecules present evidence of unmodeled, averaged, relatively isoenergetic conformations in ligand-receptor interactions. In many retrospective cases, these alternate conformations were adventitiously exploited to guide compound design, resulting in improved potency or selectivity. Combining qFit-ligand with high-throughput screening or multi-temperature crystallography could therefore augment the structure-based drug design toolbox.

An ongoing challenge in modern catalysis is to identify and understand new modes of reactivity promoted by earth-abundant and inexpensive first-row transition metals. Herein, we report a mechanistic study of an unusual copper(I)-catalyzed 1,3-migration of 2-bromostyrenes that reincorporates the bromine activating group into the final product with concomitant borylation of the aryl halide bond. A combination of experimental and computational studies indicated this reaction does not involve any oxidation state changes at copper; rather, migration occurs through a series of formal sigmatropic shifts. Insight provided from these studies will be used to expand the utility of aryl copper species in synthesis and develop new ligands for enantioselective copper-catalyzed halogenation.

α,β-Unsaturated acylammonium salts, generated in situ from commodity acid chlorides and a chiral isothiourea organocatalyst, comprise a new and versatile family of chiral dienophiles for the venerable Diels–Alder (DA) cycloaddition. Their reactivity is unveiled through a highly diastereo- and enantioselective Diels–Alder/lactonization organocascade that generates cis- and trans-fused bicyclic γ- and δ-lactones bearing up to four contiguous stereocenters. Moreover, the first examples of DA-initiated, stereodivergent organocascades are described delivering complex scaffolds found in bioactive compounds. The origins of stereoselectivity are rationalized through computational studies. In addition, the utility of this methodology is demonstrated through a concise approach to the core structure of glaciolide and formal syntheses of fraxinellone, trisporic acids, and trisporols.

Sulfur-lone pair interactions are important conformational control elements in sulfur-containing heterocycles that abound in pharmaceuticals, natural products, agrochemicals, polymers and other important classes of organic molecules. Nonetheless, the role of intramolecular sulfur-lone pair interactions in the binding of small molecules to receptors is often overlooked. Here we analyze the magnitudes and origins of these interactions for a variety of biologically relevant small molecules using quantum chemical and automated docking calculations. In most cases examined in this study, the lowest energy conformation of the small molecule displays a sulfur-lone pair close contact. However, docking studies, both published and new, often predict that conformations without sulfur-lone pair contacts have the best binding affinity for their respective receptors. This is a serious problem. Since many of these predicted bound conformations are not actually energetically accessible, pursuing design (e.g., drug design) around these binding modes necessarily will lead, serendipity aside, to dead end designs. Our results constitute a caution that one best not neglect these interactions when predicting the binding affinities of potential ligands (drugs or not) for hosts (enzymes, receptors, DNA, RNA, synthetic hosts). Moreover, a better understanding and awareness of sulfur-lone pair interactions should facilitate the rational modulation of host-guest interactions involving sulfur-containing molecules.

A series of computational laboratory experiments aimed at teaching students principles of rational drug design are described and evaluated. These experiments range from an introduction to viewing protein–ligand complexes to optimizing geometries of potential drugs with quantum chemistry and automated docking. Student feedback indicates that such a course increased their appreciation for the roles of chemists in the drug discovery–development process.