Forty years ago, climate scientists predicted the Arctic to be one of Earth's most sensitive climate regions and thus extremely vulnerable to increased CO 2 . The rapid and unprecedented changes observed in the Arctic confirm this prediction. Especially significant, observed sea ice loss is altering the exchange of mass, energy, and momentum between the Arctic Ocean and atmosphere.As an important component of air-sea exchange, surface turbulent fluxes are controlled by vertical gradients of temperature and humidity between the surface and atmosphere, wind speed, and surface roughness, indicating that they respond to other forcing mechanisms such as atmospheric advection, ocean mixing, and radiative flux changes. The exchange of energy between the atmosphere and surface via surface turbulent fluxes in turn feeds back on the Arctic surface energy budget, sea ice, clouds, boundary layer temperature and humidity, and atmospheric and oceanic circulations. Understanding and attributing variability and trends in surface turbulent fluxes is important because they influence the magnitude of Arctic climate change, sea ice cover variability, and the atmospheric circulation response to increased CO 2 . This paper reviews current knowledge of Arctic Ocean surface turbulent fluxes and their effects on climate. We conclude that Arctic Ocean surface turbulent fluxes are having an increasingly consequential influence on Arctic climate variability in response to strong regional trends in the air-surface temperature contrast related to the changing character of the Arctic sea ice cover. Arctic Ocean surface turbulent energy exchanges are not smooth and steady but rather irregular and episodic, and consideration of the episodic nature of surface turbulent fluxes is essential for improving Arctic climate projections.

The 2016–2017 Arctic sea ice growth season (October–March) exhibited one of the lowest values for end‐of‐season sea ice volume and extent of any year since 1979. An analysis of Modern‐Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 atmospheric reanalysis data and Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System radiative flux data reveals that a record warm and moist Arctic atmosphere supported the reduced sea ice growth. Numerous regional episodes of increased atmospheric temperature and moisture, transported from lower latitudes, increased the cumulative energy input from downwelling longwave surface fluxes. In those same episodes, the efficiency of the atmosphere cooling radiatively to space was reduced, increasing the amount of energy retained in the Arctic atmosphere and reradiated back toward the surface. Overall, the Arctic radiative cooling efficiency shows a decreasing trend since 2000. The results presented highlight the increasing importance of atmospheric forcing on sea ice variability demonstrating that episodic Arctic atmospheric rivers, regions of elevated poleward water vapor transport, and the subsequent surface energy budget response is a critical mechanism actively contributing to the evolution of Arctic sea ice.

The temporal and spatial characteristics of decadal‐scale variability in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) cool‐season (October–March) Arctic precipitation are identified from both the Climate Prediction Center (CPC) Merged Analysis of Precipitation (CMAP) and the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) precipitation data sets. This decadal variability is shown to be partly connected to the decadal‐scale variations in tropical central Pacific sea surface temperatures (SSTs) that are primarily associated with a decadal modulation of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), i.e., transitions between periods favoring typical eastern Pacific warming (EPW) events and periods favoring central Pacific warming (CPW) events. Regression and composite analyses reveal that increases of central Pacific SSTs drive a stationary Rossby wave train that destructively interferes with the wave number‐1 component of the extratropical planetary wave. This destructive interference is opposite to the mean effect of typical EPW on the extratropical planetary wave. It leads to suppressed upward propagation of wave energy into the polar stratosphere, a stronger stratospheric polar vortex, and a tendency toward a positive phase of the Arctic Oscillation (AO). The positive AO tendency is synchronized on the decadal scale with a poleward shift of the NH storm tracks, particularly in the North Atlantic. Storm track variations further induce changes in the amount of moisture transported into the Arctic by synoptic eddies. The fluctuations in the eddy moisture transport ultimately contribute to the observed decadal‐scale variations in the total Arctic precipitation in the NH cool season.

An analysis of 2000–2015 monthly Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System‐Energy Balanced and Filled (CERES‐EBAF) and Modern‐Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA2) data reveals statistically significant fall and wintertime relationships between Arctic surface longwave (LW) radiative flux anomalies and the Arctic Oscillation (AO) and Arctic Dipole (AD). Signifying a substantial regional imprint, a negative AD index corresponds with positive downwelling clear‐sky LW flux anomalies (>10 W m−2) north of western Eurasia (0°E–120°E) and reduced sea ice growth in the Barents and Kara Seas in November–February. Conversely, a positive AO index coincides with negative clear‐sky LW flux anomalies and minimal sea ice growth change in October–November across the Arctic. Increased (decreased) atmospheric temperature and water vapor coincide with the largest positive (negative) clear‐sky flux anomalies. Positive surface LW cloud radiative effect anomalies also accompany the negative AD index in December–February. The results highlight a potential pathway by which Arctic atmospheric variability influences the regional surface radiation budget over areas of Arctic sea ice growth.

The role of high-frequency and low-frequency eddies in the melt onset of Arctic sea ice is investigated through an examination of eddy effects on lower-tropospheric (1000–500 hPa) meridional heat transport into the Arctic and local surface downwelling shortwave and longwave radiation. Total and eddy components of the meridional heat transport into the Arctic from 1979 to 2012 are calculated from reanalysis data, and surface radiation data are acquired from the NASA Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) project dataset. There is a significant positive correlation between the mean initial melt date and the September sea ice minimum extent, with each quantity characterized by a negative trend. Spatially, the earlier mean melt onset date is primarily found in a region bounded by 90°E and 130°W. The decline in this region is steplike and not associated with an increase in meridional heat transport but with an earlier appearance of above-freezing temperatures in the troposphere. In most years, discrete short-duration episodes of melt onset over a large area occur. In an investigation of two of these melt episodes, a positive total meridional heat transport is associated with the peak melt, with the product of high-frequency eddy wind and mean temperature fields being the most important contributor. Additionally, there is a key positive anomaly in surface downwelling longwave radiation immediately preceding the peak melt that is associated with increased cloud cover and precipitable water. These results suggest the importance of carefully considering and properly representing atmospheric eddies when modeling the melt onset of Arctic sea ice.