Neurons are believed to possess plasmalemmal microdomains and proteins analogous to the caveolae and caveolin of nonneuronal cells. Caveolae are plasmalemmal invaginations where activated glycosyl‐phosphatidylinositol (GPI)‐anchored proteins preferentially assemble and where transmembrane signaling may occur. Molecular cloning of rat reggie‐1 and ‐2 (80% identical to goldfish reggie proteins) shows that reggie‐2 is practically identical to mouse flotillin‐1. Flotillin‐1 and epidermal surface antigen (ESA) (flotillin‐2) are suggested to represent possible membrane proteins in caveolae. Rat reggie‐1 is 99% homologous to ESA in overlapping sequences but has a 49‐amino‐acid N‐terminus not present in ESA. Antibodies (ABs) which recognize reggie‐1 or ‐2 reveal that both proteins cluster at the plasmamembrane and occur in micropatches in neurons [dorsal root ganglia (DRGs), retinal ganglion, and PC‐12 cells] and in nonneuronal cells. In neurons, reggie micropatches occur along the axon and in lamellipodia and filopodia of growth cones, but they do not occur in caveolae. By quantitative electronmicroscopic analysis we demonstrate the absence of caveolae in (anti‐caveolin negative) neurons and show anti‐reggie‐1 immunogold‐labeled clusters at the plasmamembrane of DRGs. When ABs against the GPI‐anchored cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) F3 and Thy‐1 are applied to live DRGs, the GPI‐linked CAMs sequester into micropatches. Double immunofluorescence shows a colocalization of the CAMs with micropatches of anti‐reggie antibodies. Thus, reggie‐1 and reggie‐2 identify sites where activated GPI‐linked CAMs preferentially accumulate and which may represent noncaveolar micropatches (domains). © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 37: 502–523, 1998

Although purinergic compounds are widely involved in the intra-and intercellular communication of the nervous system, little is known of their involvement in the growth and regeneration of neuronal connections. In dissociated cultures, the addition of adenosine or guanosine in the low micromolar range induced goldfish retinal ganglion cells to extend lengthy neurites and express the growth-associated protein GAP-43. These effects were highly specific and did not reflect conversion of the nucleosides to their nucleotide derivatives; pyrimidines, purine nucleotides, and membrane-permeable, nonhydrolyzable cyclic nucleotide analogs were all inactive. The activity of adenosine required its conversion to inosine, because inhibitors of adenosine deaminase rendered adenosine inactive. Exogenously applied inosine and guanosine act directly upon an intracellular target, which may coincide with a kinase described in PC12 cells. In support of this, the effects of the purine nucleosides were blocked with purine transport inhibitors and were inhibited competitively with the purine analog 6-thioguanine (6-TG). In PC12 cells, others have shown that 6-TG blocks nerve growth factor-induced neurite outgrowth and selectively inhibits the activity of protein kinase N, a partially characterized, nerve growth factor-inducible serine-threonine kinase. In both goldfish and rat retinal ganglion cells, 6-TG completely blocked outgrowth induced by other growth factors, and this inhibition was reversed with inosine. These results suggest that axon outgrowth in central nervous system neurons critically involves an intracellular purine-sensitive mechanism.Under normal circumstances, neurons in the adult mammalian central nervous system fail to regenerate axons injured by stroke or trauma, resulting in long lasting disabilities in sensory, motor, or cognitive functions. However, many central nervous system neurons have the potential to regrow their axons if exposed to appropriate growth factors and/or if inhibitory influences that normally prevail in the mature central nervous system are suppressed (1-3). To identify factors that foster axonal regrowth in the central nervous system, we have turned to the classic model of optic nerve regeneration in lower vertebrates. Following injury to the optic nerve, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) 1 in fish and amphibia re-extend axons that synapse upon appropriate central targets within 1-2 months (4). In a dissociated cell culture model of this system, two factors secreted by optic nerve glia were found to be responsible for inducing axon outgrowth from goldfish RGCs (5, 6). The more potent of these, axogenesis factor-1 (AF-1), has a molecular mass Ͻ1 kDa and stimulates lengthy axonal outgrowth without altering cell survival. AF-2 is a larger polypeptide that exerts a significant but less pronounced effect than AF-1. The specificity of these effects is demonstrated by the inactivity of a host of polypeptide growth factors or low molecular mass differentiation factors in this system (5).In the present st...

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in rats regenerate axons in the presence of a PNS nerve graft. To determine if axonregenerating RGCs synthesize cell adhesion/recognition molecules which they possessed during development, retinae were subjected to in situ hybridization with antisense cRNA probes of L1, TAG-1, and SC-1 (and GAP-43 for comparison). L1 and TAG-1 (and GAP-43) proteins on axons were detected with antibodies. L1, TAG-1, and SC-1 (and Gap-43) mRNAs and L1 and TAG-1 (and Gap-43) proteins were expressed by RGCs in embryonic, postnatal, and adult rats. After optic nerve lesion (ONL), the surviving RGCs between 2 and 28 days after ONL continue to express L1. TAG-1 and SC-1 expression, however, is lost. In grafted rats, axon-regenerating RGCs express L1 (together with GAP-43) but neither TAG-1 nor SC-1. Thus, axonal regeneration in grafted rats occurs in the presence of L1 (and GAP-43) but in the absence of TAG-1 and SC-1.

To determine whether netrin receptors (DCC, UNC5H1, UNC5H2) and netrin-1 are present in the adult rat retina and may affect regeneration of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons into peripheral nerve (PN) grafts, in situ hybridization (ISH) and immunostaining experiments were performed in normal and operated rats. Netrin-1 expression was not found in the optic nerve head of adult rats, normal and postlesion, but appeared transiently at 7 and 14 days after PN grafting. ISH signals of netrin receptors, however, disappeared from RGCs within 2 days after lesion and remained absent after PN grafting except for UNC5H2, which transiently occurred in a few RGCs. Netrin-1 expression was observed in the optic nerve head of adult fish, normal and postlesion, and the netrin-1 Fc fusion protein bound to young growing and all regenerating axons. Thus, the netrin-1-dependent guidance system continues to function in fish but apparently no longer operates in adult rats.

In lower vertebrates, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) can regenerate their axons and reestablish functional connections after optic nerve injury. We show here that in goldfish RGCs, the effects of several trophic factors converge on a purine-sensitive signaling mechanism that controls axonal outgrowth and the expression of multiple growth-associated proteins. In culture, goldfish RGCs regenerate their axons in response to two molecules secreted by optic nerve glia, axogenesis factor-1 (AF-1) and AF-2, along with ciliary neurotrophic factor. The purine analog 6-thioguanine (6-TG) blocked outgrowth induced by each of these factors. Previous studies in PC12 cells have shown that the effects of 6-TG on neurite outgrowth may be mediated via inhibition of a 47 kDa protein kinase. Growth factor-induced axogenesis in RGCs was accompanied by many of the molecular changes that characterize regenerative growth in vivo, e.g., increased expression of GAP-43 and certain cell surface glycoproteins. 6-TG inhibited all of these changes but not those associated with axotomy per se, e.g., induction of jun family transcription factors, nor did it affect cell survival. Additional studies using RGCs from transgenic zebrafish showed that expression of T␣-1 tubulin is likewise stimulated by AF-1 and blocked by 6-TG. The purine nucleoside inosine had effects opposite to those of 6-TG. Inosine stimulated outgrowth and the characteristic pattern of molecular changes in RGCs and competitively reversed the inhibitory effects of 6-TG. We conclude that axon regeneration and the underlying program of gene expression in goldfish RGCs are mediated via a common, purine-sensitive pathway.