BACKGROUND: Decreased appetite and increased energy expenditure after oral consumption of red pepper has been shown. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to assess the relative oral and gastrointestinal contribution to capsaicin-induced satiety and its effects on food intake or macronutrient selection. METHODS: For 24 subjects (12 men and 12 women; age: 35710 y; BMI: 25.072.4 kg/m 2 ; range 20-30), 16 h food intake was assessed four times during 2 consecutive days by offering macronutrient-specific buffets and boxes with snacks, in our laboratory restaurant. At 30 min before each meal, 0.9 g red pepper (0.25% capsaicin; 80 000 Scoville Thermal Units) or a placebo was offered in either tomato juice or in two capsules that were swallowed with tomato juice. Hunger and satiety were recorded using Visual Analogue Scales. RESULTS: Average daily energy intake in the placebo condition was 11.571.0 MJ/d for the men and 9.470.8 MJ/d for the women. After capsaicin capsules, energy intake was 10.470.6 and 8.370.5 MJ/d (Po0.01); after capsaicin in tomato juice, it was 9.970.7 and 7.970.5 MJ/d, respectively (compared to placebo: Po0.001; compared to capsaicin in capsules: Po0.05). En % from carbohydrate/protein/fat (C/P/F): changed from 4673/1571/3972 to 5274/1571/3372 en% (Po0.01) in the men, and from 4874/1472/3873 to 4274/1472/3273 en% (Po0.01) in the women, in both capsaicin conditions. Satiety (area under the curve) increased from 689 to 757 mmh in the men and from 712 to 806 mmh in the women, both (Po0.01). Only in the oral exposure condition was the reduction in energy intake and the increase in satiety related to perceived spiciness. CONCLUSIONS: In the short term, both oral and gastrointestinal exposure to capsaicin increased satiety and reduced energy and fat intake; the stronger reduction with oral exposure suggests a sensory effect of capsaicin.
A gorging pattern of food intake has been shown to enhance lipogenesis and increase body weight, which may be due to large fluctuations in storage and mobilisation of nutrients. In a state of energy balance, increasing meal frequency, and thereby decreasing inter-meal interval, may prevent large metabolic fluctuations. Our aim was to study the effect of the inter-meal interval by dividing energy intake over two or three meals on energy expenditure, substrate oxidation and 24 h satiety, in healthy, normal-weight women in a state of energy balance. The study was a randomised crossover design with two experimental conditions. During the two experimental conditions subjects (fourteen normal-weight women, aged 24·4 (SD 7·1) years, underwent 36 h sessions in energy balance in a respiration chamber for measurements of energy expenditure and substrate oxidation. The subjects were given two (breakfast, dinner) or three (breakfast, lunch, dinner) meals per d. We chose to omit lunch in the two meals condition, because this resulted in a marked difference in inter-meal-interval after breakfast (8·5 h v. 4 h). Eating three meals compared with two meals had no effects on 24 h energy expenditure, diet-induced thermogenesis, activity-induced energy expenditure and sleeping metabolic rate. Eating three meals compared with two meals increased 24 h fat oxidation, but decreased the amount of fat oxidised from the breakfast. The same amount of energy divided over three meals compared with over two meals increased satiety feelings over 24 h. In healthy, normal-weight women, decreasing the inter-meal interval sustains satiety, particularly during the day, and sustains fat oxidation, particularly during the night. Fat oxidation: Satiety: Meal patternObesity is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in Western societies. Fundamentally, obesity results from an energy imbalance that occurs when energy consumption exceeds energy expenditure. In order to achieve a state of energy balance, energy intake should meet and not exceed energy expenditure. In human individuals, energy intake is not fully adapted to energy expenditure when assessed per d, but does meet energy expenditure when assessed over 1 week (1,2) . In Western populations, typically, three meals per d are consumed, with the largest meal in the evening. Fabry and co-workers were the first to demonstrate an inverse relationship between habitual meal frequency and body weight in human subjects (3 -5) . Later meal frequency studies have shown that nibblers, having a meal frequency of four or more meals/d, are able to compensate more accurately over 24 h for manipulation of the energy content of the foods consumed than meal feeders having a meal frequency of less than three meals/d (6,7) . Increasing meal frequency has also been shown to sustain satiety (7) . Snack consumption, however, has been suggested to be a risk factor for obesity (8) . In a recent study, Stote and colleagues observed a significant reduction in body weight and body fat of subjects who consumed one meal per ...
High-protein (HP) foods are more satiating and have a higher thermogenic effect than normal protein foods over the short-term as well as the long-term. We hypothesized that acute effects of higher protein intake on satiety may be related to acute metabolic and hormonal responses. The study was a single-blind, randomized, crossover design. Subjects underwent 2 indirect calorimetry tests for measurement of energy expenditure (EE) and substrate oxidation. After a standard subject-specific breakfast, subjects received 1 of 2 randomly assigned treatments: an appropriate protein (AP) lunch (10% energy (E) protein, 60%E carbohydrate, 30%E fat), or a HP lunch (25%E protein, 45%E carbohydrate, 30%E fat). The increase in postlunch EE tended to be greater after the HP lunch (0.85 +/- 0.32 kJ/min) than after the AP lunch (0.73 +/- 0.22 kJ/min) (P = 0.07). The respiratory quotient did not differ between the HP (0.84 +/- 0.04) and the AP (0.86 +/- 0.04) treatments. Satiety visual analogue scales (VAS) scores were significantly higher 30 and 120 min after the HP lunch than after the AP lunch. The area under the curve of the VAS score for satiety was higher after the HP lunch (263 +/- 61 mm/h) than after the AP lunch (AP 236 +/- 76 mm/h) (P < 0.02). Effects of the meals on satiety and diet-induced thermogenesis did not occur simultaneously with changes in plasma ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine concentrations. A single HP lunch, therefore, does not exert its acute effect on satiety through increased concentrations of satiety-related hormones. Other factors, which may explain the HP effect on satiety, may be metabolites or amino acids.
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