As ATP released from astrocytes can modulate many neural signaling systems, the triggers of and pathways for this ATP release are important. Here, the ability of mechanical strain to trigger ATP release through pannexin channels, and the effects of sustained strain on pannexin expression, were examined in rat optic nerve head astrocytes. Astrocytes released ATP when subjected to 5% equibiaxial strain or to hypotonic swelling. While astrocytes expressed mRNA for pannexins 1–3, connexin 43 and VNUT, pharmacological analysis suggested a predominant role for pannexins in mechanosensitive ATP release, with Rho kinases contributing. Astrocytes from panx1−/− mice had reduced baseline and stimulated levels of extracellular ATP, confirming the role for pannexins. Swelling astrocytes triggered a regulatory volume decrease that was inhibited by apyrase or probenecid. The swelling–induced rise in calcium was inhibited by P2X7 receptor antagonists A438079 and AZ10606120, in addition to apyrase and carbenoxelone. Extended stretch of astrocytes in vitro upregulated expression of panx1 and panx2 mRNA. A similar upregulation was observed in vivo in optic nerve head tissue from the Tg-MYOCY437H mouse model of chronic glaucoma; genes for panx1, panx2 and panx3 were increased while immunohistochemistry confirmed increased expression of pannexin 1 protein. In summary, astrocytes released ATP in response to mechanical strain, with pannexin 1 the predominant efflux pathway. Sustained strain upregulated pannexins in vitro and in vivo. Together these findings provide a mechanism by which extracellular ATP remains elevated under chronic mechanical strain, as found in the optic nerve head of patients with glaucoma.

The P2X 7 receptor is associated with the death of many cell types, and growing evidence supports its presence on neurons. Activation of the P2X 7 receptor on isolated retinal ganglion cells increases intracellular calcium levels and can kill the cells. Within the intact eye, however, glia and other cell types surrounding the ganglion cells may provide protection and attenuate the effects of receptor stimulation. This investigation thus asks whether stimulation of the P2X 7 receptor can actually kill retinal ganglion cells in vivo. Drugs were injected intravitreally into the superior/nasal region of Long Evans rats. Cell survival was determined by counting the number of remaining ganglion cells labeled with aminostilbamidine. The P2X 7 receptor agonist BzATP reduced ganglion cell survival as compared to eyes injected with saline solution. Ganglion cell death was inhibited by co-injection of the P2X 7 antagonists Brilliant Blue G and MRS 2540. The loss of ganglion cells following activation of the P2X 7 receptor was also prevented by the adenosine A 3 adenosine receptor agonist MRS 3558. In conclusion, stimulation of the P2X 7 receptor can kill retinal ganglion cells in vivo. The neuroprotective effects of A 3 activation identified in isolated ganglion cells are also receptor apparent in vivo. This implies that the balance between extracellular ATP and its protective metabolite adenosine can influence ganglion cell survival in the living eye.

Optimal neuronal activity requires that supporting cells provide both efficient nutrient delivery and waste disposal. The incomplete processing of engulfed waste by their lysosomes can lead to accumulation of residual material and compromise their support of neurons. As most degradative lysosomal enzymes function best at an acidic pH, lysosomal alkalinization can impede enzyme activity and increase lipofuscin accumulation. We hypothesize that treatment to reacidify compromised lysosomes can enhance degradation. Here, we demonstrate that degradation of ingested photoreceptor outer segments by retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells is increased by stimulation of D5 dopamine receptors. D1/D5 receptor agonists reacidified lysosomes in cells alkalinized by chloroquine or tamoxifen, with acidification dependent on protein kinase A. Knockdown with siRNA confirmed acidification was mediated by the D5 receptor. Exposure of cells to outer segments increased lipofuscin-like autofluorescence, but SKF 81297 reduced autofluorescence. Likewise, SKF 81297 increased the activity of lysosomal protease cathepsin D in situ. D5DR stimulation also acidified lysosomes of RPE cells from elderly ABCA4−/− mice, a model of recessive Stargardt’s retinal degeneration. In conclusion, D5 receptor stimulation lowers compromised lysosomal pH, enhancing degradation. The reduced accumulation of lipofuscin-like autofluorescence implies the D5 receptor stimulation may enable cells to better support adjacent neurons.