Summary The basal ganglia (BG) are critical for adaptive motor control, but the circuit principles underlying their pathway-specific modulation of target regions are not well understood. Here, we dissect the mechanisms underlying BG direct- and indirect-pathway-mediated control of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR), a brainstem target of the BG that is critical for locomotion. We optogenetically dissect the locomotor function of the three neurochemically-distinct cell types within the MLR: glutamatergic, GABAergic, and cholinergic neurons. We find that the glutamatergic subpopulation encodes locomotor state and speed, is necessary and sufficient for locomotion, and is selectively innervated by BG. We further show activation and suppression, respectively, of MLR glutamatergic neurons by direct and indirect pathways, which is required for bidirectional control of locomotion by BG circuits. These findings provide a fundamental understanding of how the BG can initiate or suppress a motor program through cell-type-specific regulation of neurons linked to specific actions.

SUMMARY Movement suppression in Parkinson’s disease (PD) is thought to arise from increased efficacy of the indirect pathway basal ganglia circuit, relative to the direct pathway. However, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms remain elusive. To examine whether changes in the strength of synaptic inputs to these circuits contribute to this imbalance, we obtained paired whole-cell recordings from striatal direct- and indirect-pathway medium spiny neurons (dMSNs and iMSNs) and optically stimulated inputs from sensorimotor cortex or intralaminar thalamus in brain slices from control and dopamine-depleted mice. We found that dopamine depletion selectively decreased synaptic strength at thalamic inputs to dMSNs, suggesting that thalamus drives asymmetric activation of basal ganglia circuitry underlying parkinsonian motor impairments. Consistent with this hypothesis, in vivo chemogenetic and optogenetic inhibition of thalamostriatal terminals reversed motor deficits in dopamine-depleted mice. These results implicate thalamostriatal projections in the pathophysiology of PD and support interventions targeting thalamus as a potential therapeutic strategy.

Psychostimulants induce neuroadaptations in excitatory and fast inhibitory transmission in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Mechanisms underlying drug-evoked synaptic plasticity of slow inhibitory transmission mediated by GABAB receptors and G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK/Kir3) channels, however, are poorly understood. Here, we show that one day after methamphetamine (METH) or cocaine exposure, both synaptically-evoked and baclofen-activated GABABR-GIRK currents were significantly depressed in VTA GABA neurons, and remained depressed for 7 days. Presynaptic inhibition mediated by GABABRs on GABA terminals was also weakened. Quantitative immunoelectron microscopy revealed internalization of GABAB1R and GIRK2, which occurred coincident with dephosphorylation of Ser783 in GABAB2R, a site implicated in regulating GABABR surface expression. Inhibition of protein phosphatases recovered GABABR-GIRK currents in VTA GABA neurons of METH-injected mice. This psychostimulant-evoked impairment in GABABR signaling removes an intrinsic brake on GABA neuron spiking, which may augment GABA transmission in the mesocorticolimbic system.

Highlights d Punishments and punishment-predictive cues excite LHb neurons d Avoidance learning strengthens hypothalamus-to-LHb excitation d Hypothalamic inputs and AMPAR potentiation underlie avoidance

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