Macrophages have important roles in both lipid metabolism and inflammation and are central to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The liver X receptors (LXRs) are established mediators of lipid-inducible gene expression, but their role in inflammation and immunity is unknown. We demonstrate here that LXRs and their ligands are negative regulators of macrophage inflammatory gene expression. Transcriptional profiling of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophages reveals reciprocal LXR-dependent regulation of genes involved in lipid metabolism and the innate immune response. In vitro, LXR ligands inhibit the expression of inflammatory mediators such as inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in response to bacterial infection or LPS stimulation. In vivo, LXR agonists reduce inflammation in a model of contact dermatitis and inhibit inflammatory gene expression in the aortas of atherosclerotic mice. These findings identify LXRs as lipid-dependent regulators of inflammatory gene expression that may serve to link lipid metabolism and immune functions in macrophages.

SUMMARY Unique among leukocytes, neutrophils follow daily cycles of release from and migration back into the bone marrow, where they are eliminated. Because removal of dying cells generates homeostatic signals, we explored whether neutrophil elimination triggers circadian events in the steady-state. Here, we report that the homeostatic clearance of neutrophils provides cues that modulate the physiology of the bone marrow. We identify a population of CD62LLO CXCR4HI neutrophils that have “aged” in the circulation and are eliminated at the end of the resting period in mice. Aged neutrophils infiltrate the bone marrow and promote reductions in the size and function of the hematopoietic niche. Modulation of the niche depends on macrophages and activation of cholesterol-sensing nuclear receptors, and is essential for the rhythmic egress of hematopoietic progenitors into the circulation. Our results unveil a process that synchronizes immune and hematopoietic rhythms, and expand the ascribed functions of neutrophils beyond inflammation.

Summary Effective clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages is essential for immune homeostasis. The transcriptional pathways that allow macrophages to sense and respond to apoptotic cells are poorly defined. We demonstrate here that LXR signaling is important for both apoptotic cell clearance and the maintenance of immune tolerance. Apoptotic cell engulfment activates LXR and thereby induces the expression of Mer, a receptor tyrosine kinase critical for phagocytosis. LXR null macrophages exhibit a selective defect in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and an aberrant pro-inflammatory response to them. As a consequence of these defects, mice lacking LXRs manifest a breakdown in self-tolerance and develop autoantibodies and autoimmune glomerulonephritis. Treatment with an LXR agonist ameliorates disease progression in mouse models of Lupus-like autoimmunity. Thus, activation of LXR by apoptotic cells engages a virtuous cycle that promotes their own clearance and couples engulfment to the suppression of inflammatory pathways.