The present study examined the association between theory of mind and indirect versus physical aggression, as well as the potential moderating role of prosocial behavior in this context. Participants were 399 twins and singletons drawn from two longitudinal studies in Canada. At five years of age, children completed a theory of mind task and a receptive vocabulary task. A year later, teachers evaluated children's indirect and physical aggression and prosocial behavior. Indirect aggression was significantlyCorrespondence should be addressed to Mara Brendgen, and positively associated with theory of mind skills, but only in children with average or low levels of prosocial behavior. Physical aggression was negatively associated with prosocial behavior but not with theory of mind. Each analysis included gender, receptive vocabulary, and the respective other subtype of aggression as control variables. These results did not differ between girls and boys or between twins and singletons. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

This study investigated the relation between theory of mind and reactive and proactive aggression, respectively, as well as the moderating role of peer victimization in this context. The 574 participants were drawn from a longitudinal study of twins. Theory of mind was assessed before school entry, when participants were 5 years old. Reactive and proactive aggression as well as peer victimization were assessed a year later in kindergarten. Results from multilevel regression CIHR Author Manuscript CIHR Author Manuscript CIHR Author Manuscriptanalyses revealed that low theory of mind was related to a high level of reactive aggression, but only in children who experienced average to high levels of peer victimization. In contrast, a high theory of mind was related to a high level of proactive aggression. Again, this relation was especially pronounced in children who experienced high levels of peer victimization. These findings challenge the social skills deficit view of aggression and provide support for a multidimensional perspective of aggressive behavior. KeywordsTheory of mind; Reactive and proactive aggression; Peer victimizationIn the study of aggressive behavior a fundamental distinction is made between reactive aggression and proactive aggression, which refer to two different underlying functions of aggression (Day, Bream and Paul 1992;Dodge and Coie 1987;Schwartz et al. 1998).Reactive aggression is defined as a retaliatory response to a real or perceived threat or provocation. It is associated with the frustration theory of aggression (Berkowitz 1989) and is accompanied by an activation of the autonomous system (Hubbard et al. 2002). In contrast, proactive aggression is considered a non-provoked behavior that is motivated by the desire for personal gains or the domination of others (Vitaro and Brendgen 2005). As an organized and planned behavior, proactive aggression is related to the anticipation of a positive outcome of the aggressive behavior (Dodge et al. 1997). Although studies usually report a high correlation between reactive and proactive aggression (mean r=0.68; Card and Little 2006), factor analyses and meta-analyses provide clear evidence for the validity of the distinction between the two functions of aggression (Card and Little 2006;Crick and Dodge 1996;McAuliffe et al. 2007;Poulin and Boivin 2000;Vitaro et al. 1998). As will be discussed in more detail below, evidence also suggests that these two functions of aggressive behavior are differentially related to social cognitive skills, particularly with respect to the decoding of social stimuli (Crick and Dodge 1996;Dodge et al. 1997;Dodge and Coie 1987;Hubbard et al. 2001;Schippel et al. 2003). The present study examines a specific and as yet unstudied aspect of decoding-related social cognitive skills, namely theory of mind, in relation to proactive and reactive aggression. The Role of Theory of Mind in Social BehaviorTheory of mind implies the capacity to attribute mental states to the self and to others in order to explain and predic...

Extreme ambient heat is a serious public health threat, especially for the elderly and persons with pre-existing health conditions. Although much of the excess mortality and morbidity associated with extreme heat is preventable, the adoption of effective preventive strategies is limited. The study reported here tested the predictive power of selected components of the Health Belief Model for air-conditioning (AC) use among 238 non-institutionalized middle-aged and older adults with chronic heart failure and/or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease living in Montréal, Canada. Respondents were recruited through clinics (response rate 71%) and interviews were conducted in their homes or by telephone. Results showed that 73% of participants reported having a home air conditioner. The average number of hours spent per 24-hour period in air-conditioned spaces during heat waves was 14.5 hours (SD = 9.4). Exploratory structural equation modeling showed that specific beliefs about the benefits of and drawbacks to AC as well as internal cues to action were predictive of its level of use, whereas the perceived severity of the effects of heat on health was not. The findings are discussed in light of the need to adequately support effective response to extreme heat in this vulnerable population.

ustained heat waves have struck both North America and Europe in the recent past. Impacts on human health have been dramatic: in August 2003, an estimated 1,067 Parisians died prematurely during the course of 9 uncharacteristically hot days; 1 an estimated 739 Chicago residents died as a consequence of a 7-day heat wave in 1995. 2 The ill and elderly are among those most vulnerable to the ravages of extreme heat. 3 On very hot days, older individuals 4 and persons with cardiac insufficiency, obstructive pulmonary disease and other chronic health conditions die in above-expected numbers. 5,6 Mortality may be preventable by measures taken before and by interventions taken during episodes of extreme heat. Health authorities recommend pre-event measures such as acquiring an air conditioner, learning the signs of heat-related illness, and identifying a friend or family member ready to monitor and assist when it is hot. 7 During heat episodes, news media join health authorities in advising the public to find cool spaces, to stay hydrated and to avoid strenuous activity. 8 Many cities now have programs to inform, assist and even shelter residents during prolonged heat episodes. 9 Despite the existence of advisories and interventions designed to protect vulnerable persons from the effects of extreme heat, we know little about how those targeted respond. Our objective was to fill this gap. METHODS Participants and proceduresThe study was conducted in Montreal between May 30 and October 6, 2005, when daily mean temperatures were 2.4°C above the long-term average. 10 Patients attending two specialized clinics for heart failure (CHF) and three for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), all located at Montreal university hospitals, and who were resident in metropolitan Montreal (population 3,000,000), spoke French and/or English, and had a home telephone, were eligible. Contact was made with all patients waiting at the clinics, and by telephone drawing from lists of all clinic patients treated at home. At the participant's choice, face-to-face interviews were conducted either at the hospital clinic or the participant's home. MeasuresA preliminary version of the questionnaire (available from the corresponding author) was developed in collaboration with health professionals from two participating CHF and COPD clinics. Composed in French, the hour-long questionnaire was translated into English.