Dalenberg et al. (2012) argued that convincing evidence (a) supports the longstanding trauma model (TM), which posits that early trauma plays a key role in the genesis of dissociation; and (b) refutes the fantasy model (FM), which posits that fantasy proneness, suggestibility, cognitive failures, and other variables foster dissociation. We review evidence bearing on Dalenberg et al.'s 8 predictions and find them largely wanting in empirical support. We contend that the authors repeat errors committed by many previous proponents of the TM, such as attributing a central etiological role to trauma in the absence of sufficient evidence. Specifically, Dalenberg et al. leap too quickly from correlational data to causal conclusions, do not adequately consider the lack of corroboration of abuse in many studies, and underestimate the relation between dissociation and false memories. Nevertheless, we identify points of agreement between the TM and FM regarding potential moderators and mediators of dissociative symptoms (e.g., family environment, biological vulnerabilities) and the hypothesis that dissociative identity disorder is a disorder of self-understanding. We acknowledge that trauma may play a causal role in dissociation but that this role is less central and specific than Dalenberg et al. contend. Finally, although a key assumption of the TM is dissociative amnesia, the notion that people can encode traumatic experiences without being able to recall them lacks strong empirical support. Accordingly, we conclude that the field should now abandon the simple trauma-dissociation model and embrace multifactorial models that accommodate the diversity of causes of dissociation and dissociative disorders.Keywords: dissociation, dissociative disorder, dissociative identity disorder, trauma, sociocognitive modelThe notion that people dissociate to cope with trauma has its roots in the writings of Janet (1889/1973). This trauma model (TM) remains influential among some clinical scholars (e.g., Dalenberg et al., 2012), who contend that trauma is the key player in the genesis of dissociation. Nevertheless, as we discuss later, advocates of the TM have often neglected to articulate trauma's precise role in the cause of dissociation. Critics of the TM (e.g., Giesbrecht, Lynn, Lilienfeld, & Merckelbach, 2008, 2010Lynn, Lilienfeld, Merckelbach, Giesbrecht, & van der Kloet, 2012;Pope & Hudson, 1995) Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Steven Jay Lynn, Psychology Department, Binghamton University (SUNY), Binghamton, NY 13902. E-mail: stevenlynn100@gmail.com This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.Psychological Bulletin © 2014 American Psychological Association 2014 0033-2909/14/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0035570 896 etiology of dissociation and dissociative disorders. 1 An early alternative to the TM, the sociocognitive model (SCM; Lili...
There is considerable interest in developing complementary and integrative approaches for ameliorating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Compassion meditation (CM) and loving-kindness meditation appear to offer benefits to individuals with PTSD, including symptom reduction. The present study was a pilot randomized controlled trial of CM for PTSD in veterans. The CM condition, an adaptation of Cognitively-Based Compassion Training (CBCT R ), consists of exercises to stabilize attention, develop present-moment awareness, and foster compassion. We compared CM to Veteran.calm (VC), which consists of psychoeducation about PTSD, rationale for relaxation, relaxation training, and sleep hygiene. Both conditions consist of 10 weekly 90-min group sessions with between-session practice assignments. A total of 28 veterans attended at least one session of the group intervention and completed pre-and posttreatment measures of PTSD severity and secondary outcomes as well as weekly measures of PTSD, depressive symptoms, and positive and negative emotions. Measures of treatment credibility, attendance, practice compliance, and satisfaction were administered to assess feasibility. A repeated measures analysis of variance revealed a more substantive reduction in PTSD symptoms in the CM condition than in the VC condition, between-group d = −0.85. Credibility, attendance, and satisfaction were similar across CM and VC conditions thus demonstrating the feasibility of CM and the appropriateness of VC as a comparison condition. The findings of this initial randomized pilot study provide rationale for future studies examining the efficacy and effectiveness of CM for veterans with PTSD.
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