cInfections with Bartonella spp. have been recognized as emerging zoonotic diseases in humans. Large knowledge gaps exist, however, relating to reservoirs, vectors, and transmission of these bacteria. We describe identification by culture, PCR, and housekeeping gene sequencing of Bartonella spp. in fed, wingless deer keds (Lipoptena cervi), deer ked pupae, and blood samples collected from moose, Alces alces, sampled within the deer ked distribution range in Norway. Direct sequencing from moose blood sampled in a deer ked-free area also indicated Bartonella infection but at a much lower prevalence. The sequencing data suggested the presence of mixed infections involving two species of Bartonella within the deer ked range, while moose outside the range appeared to be infected with a single species. Bartonella were not detected or cultured from unfed winged deer keds. The results may indicate that long-term bacteremia in the moose represents a reservoir of infection and that L. cervi acts as a vector for the spread of infection of Bartonella spp. Further research is needed to evaluate the role of L. cervi in the transmission of Bartonella to animals and humans and the possible pathogenicity of these bacteria for humans and animals.

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We investigated the diversity of Bartonella in Apodemus agrarius, an important rodent of peri-domestic habitats, which has spread into Europe in the past 1000 years. Spleen samples of 344 A. agrarius from Eastern Slovakia were screened for the presence of Bartonella spp. using 16S-23S rRNA internal transcribed spacer region and bacteria were detected in 9% of rodents. Based on sequencing of three housekeeping genes (gltA, rpoB and groEL) Bartonella genotypes were ascribed to the species typical for mice and voles: B. grahamii, B. taylorii and B. birtlesii. However, the study also confirmed presence of genotypes belonging to the B. clarridgeiae/B. rochalimae clade, and the B. elizabethae/B. tribocorum clade, which are not commonly found in woodland rodents. In addition, a potential recombination event between these two genotypes was noted, which highlights an important role of A. agrarius in shaping Bartonella diversity and evolution.

In this era of unprecedented growth in aquaculture and trade, aquatic parasite cultures are essential to better understand emerging diseases and their implications for human and animal health. Yet culturing parasites presents multiple challenges, arising from their complex, often multi-host life cycles, multiple developmental stages, variable generation times and reproductive modes. Furthermore, the essential environmental requirements of most parasites remain enigmatic. Despite these inherent difficulties, in vivo and in vitro cultures are being developed for a small but growing number of aquatic pathogens. Expanding this resource will facilitate diagnostic capabilities and treatment trials, thus supporting the growth of sustainable aquatic commodities and communities. Aquatic parasite cultures permit advances in human, animal and environmental health Parasite cultures (see Glossary) facilitate the completion of life cycles over successive generations, either in vivo (i.e. on or in a host) or in vitro (i.e. in the absence of the host). Alternatively, if the full life cycle cannot be completed, some parasite development or extension of life span might be achieved. Ideally, cultures should have defined origins and depending on the application, it may be desirable for them to be genetically restricted and maintain the same restricted subset of genotypes across generations. The ultimate goal of a parasite culture is to provide readily manipulated material of defined life-stages for replicable experimental research. Aquatic cultures include the use of molluscan, crustacean, fish, amphibian, avian and mammalian hosts for a wide diversity of parasites (Table 1). Recent rapid growth in the mass production of aquatic animals for food, alongside growth in international trade, rapid domestication and application of new technologies, drive

BackgroundHeligmosomoides polygyrus is a widespread gastro-intestinal nematode infecting wild Apodemus (wood mice) throughout Europe. Using molecular and morphological evidence, we review the status of Heligmosomoides from Apodemus agrarius in Poland previously considered to be an outlying clade of H. polygyrus, to further resolve the status of the laboratory model species, H. bakeri.MethodsMorphological analysis of the male bursa and the synlophe, and molecular analyses of concatenated nuclear (28S rDNA, ITS1 and ITS2) and mitochondrial (CO1 and cytb) genes, of Heligmosomoides collected from Apodemus agrarius from two sites in Poland and comparison with related heligmosomids from voles and mice in Eurasia.ResultsHeligmosomoides neopolygyrus, a heligmosomid nematode from Apodemus species from China and Japan, is recognised for the first time in western Europe infecting Apodemus agrarius in Poland. It can be distinguished from H. polygyrus by the filiform externo-dorsal rays of the male copulatory bursa and the small, equally distributed longitudinal crêtes on the body. Specimens from A. agrarius are 20% different at ribosomal (ITS1 and ITS2) nuclear loci, and 10% different at the mitochondrial cytb locus from H. polygyrus, and in phylogenetic analyses group with the vole-infecting genus Heligmosomum.ConclusionsDespite morphological similarity, H. neopolygyrus is only distantly related to H. polygyrus from western European Apodemus, and may be more closely related to vole-infecting taxa. It was brought into Europe by the recent rapid migration of the host mice. Inclusion of H. neopolygyrus in phylogenies makes it clear that Heligmosomoides is paraphyletic, with the pika-infecting Ohbayashinema and the vole-infecting Heligmosomum nesting within it. Clarification of the European status of H. neopolygyrus also allows H. bakeri, the laboratory model species, to be seen as a terminal sister clade to H. polygyrus, rather than as an internal clade of the latter taxon.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0457-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.