Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic disabling disease that affects the central nervous system. The main consequences of AD include the decline of cognitive functions and language disorders. One of the causes leading to AD is the decrease of neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) levels in the brain, in part due to a higher activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme responsible for its degradation. Many acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), both natural and synthetic, have been developed and used through the years to counteract the progression of the disease. The first of such drugs approved for a therapeutic use was tacrine, that binds through a reversible bond to the enzyme. However, tacrine has since been withdrawn because of its adverse effects. Currently, donepezil and galantamine are very promising AChEIs with clinical benefits. Moreover, rivastigmine is considered a pseudo-irreversible compound with anti-AChE action, providing similar effects at the clinical level. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of what has been published over the last decade on the effectiveness of AChEIs in AD, analysing the most relevant issues under the clinical and methodological profiles and the consequent possible welfare effects for the whole world. Furthermore, novel drugs and possible therapeutic approaches are also discussed.
Wild cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) is a widespread Mediterranean plant that accumulates inulin in its roots. This study aimed to analyze the enzyme systems involved in inulin metabolism in the roots of one Sicilian wild cardoon population in relation to the plant’s growth and development stages. During the winter season, the plant showed slow growth; its biomass was represented mainly by leaves and saccharides were mobilized into its roots. During the spring season, the plant doubled its growth rate and differentiated its reproduction organs as a consequence of the cold conditions. The maximum activities of the 1-SST were recorded in line with the high sucrose and inulin levels in roots, which increased quickly. The increase in the 1-FEH activity suggests that fructan-hydrolyzing activity is associated with the sprouting and elongation of plant stalks. The peak of the invertase activity occurred before the 1-FEH peak. The inulin accumulation in the wild cardoon roots was associated with the plant’s reproduction. Sequential 1-SST and 1-FEH activities and the involvement of invertase and 1-FFT in carbohydrate mobilization, in response to the additional energy demand of the plant for stalk elongation before and for capitula development were observed, along with subsequent grain ripening.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has raised serious concerns worldwide due to its great impact on human health and forced scientists racing to find effective therapies to control the infection and a vaccine for the virus. To this end, intense research efforts have focused on understanding the viral biology of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for COVID-19. The ever-expanding list of cases, reporting clinical neurological complications in COVID-19 patients, strongly suggests the possibility of the virus invading the nervous system. The pathophysiological processes responsible for the neurological impact of COVID-19 are not fully understood. Some neurodegenerative disorders sometimes take more than a decade to manifest, so the long-term pathophysiological outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 neurotropism should be regarded as a challenge for researchers in this field. There is no documentation on the long-term impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the human central nervous system (CNS). Most of the data relating to neurological damage during SARS-CoV-2 infection have yet to be established experimentally. The purpose of this review is to describe the knowledge gained, from experimental models, to date, on the mechanisms of neuronal invasion and the effects produced by infection. The hope is that, once the processes are understood, therapies can be implemented to limit the damage produced. Long-term monitoring and the use of appropriate and effective therapies could reduce the severity of symptoms and improve quality of life of the most severely affected patients, with a special focus on those have required hospital care and assisted respiration.
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