Background and Purpose-The identification of a neuroprotective drug for stroke remains elusive. Given that mitochondria play a key role both in maintaining cellular energetic homeostasis and in triggering the activation of cell death pathways, we evaluated the efficacy of newly identified inhibitors of cytochrome c release in hypoxia/ischemia induced cell death. We demonstrate that methazolamide and melatonin are protective in cellular and in vivo models of neuronal hypoxia. Methods-The effects of methazolamide and melatonin were tested in oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced death of primary cerebrocortical neurons. Mitochondrial membrane potential, release of apoptogenic mitochondrial factors, pro-IL-1␤ processing, and activation of caspase -1 and -3 were evaluated. Methazolamide and melatonin were also studied in a middle cerebral artery occlusion mouse model. Infarct volume, neurological function, and biochemical events were examined in the absence or presence of the 2 drugs. Results-Methazolamide and melatonin inhibit oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced cell death, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, release of mitochondrial factors, pro-IL-1␤ processing, and activation of caspase-1 and -3 in primary cerebrocortical neurons. Furthermore, they decrease infarct size and improve neurological scores after middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. Conclusions-We demonstrate that methazolamide and melatonin are neuroprotective against cerebral ischemia and provide evidence of the effectiveness of a mitochondrial-based drug screen in identifying neuroprotective drugs. Given the proven human safety of melatonin and methazolamide, and their ability to cross the blood-brain-barrier, these drugs are attractive as potential novel therapies for ischemic injury.

Melatonin mediates neuroprotection in several experimental models of neurodegeneration. It is not yet known, however, whether melatonin provides neuroprotection in genetic models of Huntington’s disease (HD). We report that melatonin delays disease onset and mortality in a transgenic mouse model of HD. Moreover, mutant huntingtin (htt)-mediated toxicity in cells, mice, and humans is associated with loss of the type 1 melatonin receptor (MT1). We observe high levels of MT1 receptor in mitochondria from the brains of wild-type mice but much less in brains from HD mice. Moreover, we demonstrate that melatonin inhibits mutant htt-induced caspase activation and preserves MT1 receptor expression. This observation is critical, since melatonin-mediated protection is dependent upon the presence and activation of the MT1 receptor. In summary, we delineate a pathologic process whereby mutant htt-induced loss of the mitochondrial MT1 receptor enhances neuronal vulnerability and potentially accelerates the neurodegenerative process.

Interactions between dopaminergic and glutamatergic systems in the striatum are thought to underlie both the symptoms and adverse effects of treatment of Parkinson's disease. We have previously reported that activation of the dopamine D1 receptor triggers a rapid redistribution of striatal N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors between intracellular and postsynaptic subcellular compartments. To unravel the signaling pathways underlying this trafficking, we studied mice with targeted disruptions of either the gene that encodes the dopamine-and cAMPregulated phosphoprotein (DARPP-32), a potent and selective inhibitor of protein phosphatase-1, or the protein tyrosine kinase Fyn. In striatal tissue from DARPP-32-depleted mice, basal tyrosine and serine phosphorylation of striatal NMDA receptor subunits NR1, NR2A, and NR2B was normal, and activation of dopamine D1 receptors with the agonist SKF-82958[(Ϯ)-6-chloro-7,8-dihydroxy-3-allyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetra-hydro-1H-benzazepine] produced redistribution of NMDA receptors from vesicular compartments (P3 and LP2) to synaptosomal membranes (LP1). In the Fyn knockout mice, basal tyrosine phosphorylation of NR2A and NR2B was drastically reduced, whereas serine phosphorylation of these NMDA subunits was unchanged. In the Fyn knockout mice, the dopamine D1 receptor agonist failed to induce subcellular redistribution of NMDA receptors. In addition, Fyn-depleted mice lesioned with 6-hydroxydopamine also failed to exhibit L-DOPA-induced behavioral sensitization, but this may be caused, at least in part, by resistance of these mice to the neurotoxic lesion. These findings suggest a novel mechanism for the trafficking of striatal NMDA receptors by signaling pathways that are independent of DARPP-32 but require Fyn protein tyrosine kinase. Strategies that prevent NMDA receptor subcellular redistribution through inhibition of Fyn kinase may prove useful in the treatment of Parkinson's disease.

N-acetylserotonin (NAS) is an immediate precursor of melatonin, which we have reported is neuroprotective against ischemic injury.Here we test whether NAS is a potential neuroprotective agent in experimental models of ischemic injury. We demonstrate that NAS inhibits cell death induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation or H 2 O 2 in primary cerebrocortical neurons and primary hippocampal neurons in vitro, and organotypic hippocampal slice cultures ex vivo and reduces hypoxia/ischemia injury in the middle cerebral artery occlusion mouse model of cerebral ischemia in vivo. We find that NAS is neuroprotective by inhibiting the mitochondrial cell death pathway and the autophagic cell death pathway. The neuroprotective effects of NAS may result from the influence of mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, mitochondrial fragmentation, and inhibition of the subsequent release of apoptogenic factors cytochrome c, Smac, and apoptosis-inducing factor from mitochondria to cytoplasm, and activation of caspase-3, -9, as well as the suppression of the activation of autophagy under stress conditions by increasing LC3-II and Beclin-1 levels and decreasing p62 level. However, NAS, unlike melatonin, does not provide neuroprotection through the activation of melatonin receptor 1A. We demonstrate that NAS reaches the brain subsequent to intraperitoneal injection using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis. Given that it occurs naturally and has low toxicity, NAS, like melatonin, has potential as a novel therapy for ischemic injury.