PurposeTo introduce a model which examines the relationship between recruiters’ perceptions of image and the stigma of image norms.Design/methodology/approachThis paper examines the influence of image norms on recruiters’ perceptions of applicants during interviews and explores the manner in which recruiters may stigmatize applicants. A model is presented which explores how image norms may be used to stigmatize applicants and affect recruiters’ decisions.FindingsImage norms are found to have an influence on recruiters’ evaluations of applicants during the interview process.Research limitations/implicationsEmpirical tests of the model are suggested to illustrate how image norm violations lead to stigmatization during the recruitment process.Practical implicationsApplicants who are denied entry into organizations on the basis of their appearance or image, experience a subtle, yet unacceptable form of employment discrimination. Organizations need to ensure that they are not excluding potential employees who do not meet the image norm expectations of recruiters. Organizations need to make sure that the image norms used to evaluate applicants are not a proxy for discrimination based on protected characteristics.Originality/valueThis paper looks at image, a broader construct than physical attractiveness, to ensure equal opportunities for everyone. This is the first paper to consider the discriminatory effects of image in organizations.

D. E. Super's (1957) theory of career development has long been of interest to careers researchers (M. Savickas, 1994; S. C. Whiston & B. K. Brecheisen, 2002). Its insightful illustration of career stages has made it widely applied by careers practitioners. Image norms may influence the career decisions and developmental tasks inherent in each stage. An image norm is the belief that individuals must present or possess a certain image, consistent with occupational, organizational, or industry standards, in order to achieve career success. Understanding the effects of image norms across D. E. Super's (1957) career stages has important implications for individuals, organizations, and career counseling professionals.

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Purpose -This study aims to explore the role of formal education in managerial career attainment and how this role has changed over time. Design/methodology/approach -The personnel records of two cohorts of managers who entered the firm at different times in a large internal labor market company were examined. The study encompassed years of education, subject of degree, timing of degree conferral, and quality of educational institution. Career attainment was regressed on the control variables and the hypothesized predictor variables using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Findings -The research suggests that the importance of having an undergraduate degree seems to be increasing, while the importance of the selectivity of the university seems to be decreasing with respect to career attainment. Also, majoring in business continues to be an important factor related to career attainment. Research limitations/implications -Future research focusing specifically on the differences in managerial career attainment of individuals who stay with their initial firm versus those who change employers would be beneficial. It would also be interesting to focus on the different reasons why people go back to school to obtain a degree. Practical implications -Obtaining a degree after entering the firm was not related to career attainment. Universities have advocated the benefits of obtaining a degree to students who are already in the workforce. These results must be investigated further. Originality/value -The data for this study were obtained from occupational records and allowed a more detailed analysis of an actual internal labor market organization and a longitudinal look at the changing role of education in relationship to career attainment.

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