Insecticide resistance is one of the most important evolutionary phenomena for researchers. Overuse of chemicals has induced resistance in insect pests that ultimately has led to the collapse of disease control programs in many countries. The erroneous and inappropriate management of insect vectors has resulted in dissemination of many vector-borne diseases like dengue, malaria, diarrhea, leishmaniasis, and many others. In most cases, the emergence of new diseases and the revival of old ones can be related with ecological changes that have favored rapid growth of vector densities. Understanding molecular mechanisms in resistant strains can assist in the development of management programs to control the development and spread of resistant insect populations. The dominant, recessive, and co-dominant forms of genes encoding resistance can be investigated, and furthermore, resistance development can be addressed either by the release of susceptible strains or timely insecticide rotation. The present review discusses the resistance level in all important insect vectors of human diseases; the molecular basis of evolvement of resistance has also been discussed.
An appropriate combination of tillage and nitrogen management practices will be necessary to develop sustainable farming practices. A six-year (1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998) field study was conducted on subsurface-drained Clyde-Kenyon-Floyd soils to quantify the impact of two tillage systems (chisel plow vs. no tillage) and two N fertilizer management practices (preplant single application vs. late-spring soil test based application) on nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) leaching loss with subsurface drain discharge from corn (Zea mays L.) soybean (Glycine max L.) rotation plots. Preplant injected urea ammonium nitrate solution (UAN) fertilizer was applied at the rate of 110 kg ha-1 to chisel plow and no-till corn plots, while the late-spring N application rate averaged 179 and 156 kg ha-1 for the no-till and chisel plow corn plots, respectively. Data on subsurface drainage flow volume, NO3-N concentrations in subsurface drainage water, NO3-N loss with subsurface drainage flow, and crop yield were collected and analyzed using a randomized complete block design. Differences in subsurface drainage flow volume due to annual variations in rainfall significantly (P = 0.05) affected the NO3-N loss with subsurface drainage flows. High correlation (R2 = 0.89) between annual subsurface drainage flow volume and the annual NO3-N leaching loss with subsurface drainage water was observed. The flow-weighted average annual NO3-N concentrations varied from a low of 6.8 mg L-1 in 1994 to a high of 13.9 mg L-1 in 1996. Results of this study indicated that NO3-N losses from the chisel plow plots were 16% (16 vs. 19 kg-N ha-1) lower in comparison with no-till plots, while corn grain yield was 11% higher in the chisel plow plots (8.3 vs. 7.5 Mg ha-1). Late-spring N application applied as a sidedress resulted in 25% lower NO3-N leaching losses with subsurface drainage water in comparison with preplant single N application and also significantly (P = 0.5) higher corn grain yield by 13% (8.4 vs. 7.4 Mg ha-1). These results clearly demonstrate that chisel plow tillage with late-spring soil test based N application for corn after soybean can be a sustainable farming practice for the northeast part of Iowa.
This paper explores the impact of institutional pressures on the adoption of environmental management accounting (EMA). EMA has been recognized as a valuable mechanism to deal with environmental issues. This paper uses institutional theory to explain the drivers of EMA adoption in Pakistan. Data were collected from the manufacturing sector in Pakistan through a questionnaire-based survey. The study concludes that coercive, normative and mimetic pressures have a significant and positive impact on the adoption of EMA.
Entomopathogenic fungi vary considerably in their mode of action and virulence. Successful infection depends primarily on the adherence and penetration ability of a fungus to the host integuments. A variety of extracellular enzymes is produced during the degradation of insect integument. The attempts to control insects have changed over time from chemicals to natural control methods. This is why the development of natural methods of insect control or biopesticides, is preferred. By the use of fungal entomopathogens, insect pests can be controlled. There is no doubt that insects have been used for many years, but their effective use in the field remains elusive. However, their additional role in nature has also been discovered. Comparison of entomopathogens with conventional chemical pesticides depends on their efficiency and cost. In addition to efficiency, there are advantages in using microbial control agents, such as human safety and other non-target organisms; pesticide residues are minimized in food and biodiversity increased in managed ecosystems. In the present review the pathogenicity and virulence of entomopathogenic fungi and their role as biological control agents using biotechnology will be discussed
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