Purpose To evaluate the total fluid intake from drinking water and beverages in adult populations from different countries and assess the percentage of individuals complying with the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) adequate intake (AI) of water from fluids.MethodsA total of 16,276 adults (7580 men and 8696 women) aged between 18 and 70 years (mean age 39.8 years) were randomly recruited from 13 different countries from three continents. Information about the total daily fluid intake (sum of drinking water and beverages) was collected using a 24-h fluid-specific record over seven consecutive days.ResultsImportant differences in total fluid intake between countries were found; however, few differences between men and women were reported in most of the countries. Less than 50 % of the women and approximately 60 % of the men do not comply with the EFSA AI of water from fluids. Women were more than twice as likely as men to meet these AI (OR 2.15; 95 % CI 2.02–2.29). The odds of meeting the AI of water from fluids were lower in individuals over 50 years (OR 0.88; 95 % CI 0.80–0.96). Nine percent of the total population consumed less than half of the AI, 40.5 % between 50 and 100 %, and 50.5 % more than the AI.ConclusionsThere were considerable differences in total fluid intake between countries but not between genders. Only 40 % of men and 60 % of women comply with the EFSA AI of water from fluids. Men and elderly individuals had an increased risk of not complying with this reference value.

PurposeTo describe the intake of water and all other beverages in children and adolescents in 13 countries of three continents. MethodsData of 3611 children (4–9 years) and 8109 adolescents (10–17 years) were retrieved from 13 cross-sectional surveys (47 % males). In three countries, stratified cluster sampling design was applied to randomly recruit schools classes. A quota method was applied in the other countries to randomly recruit participants. Details on the intake of all fluid types were obtained with a fluid-specific record over 7 consecutive days. ResultsIn the total sample, the highest mean intakes were observed for water (738 ± 567 mL/day), followed by milk (212 ± 209 mL/day), regular soft beverages (RSB) (168 ± 290 mL/day) and juices (128 ± 228 mL/day). Patterns characterized by a high contribution of water, RSB or hot beverages to total fluid intake were identified among the countries with close geographical location. Adolescents had a significantly lower milk intake and higher intake of RSB and hot beverages than children in most countries. The most consistent gender difference observed was that in both age groups males reported a significantly higher RSB consumption than females.ConclusionOn average, water was the fluid consumed in the largest volume by children and adolescents, but the intake of the different fluid types varied substantially between countries. Since the RSB intake was as large, or even larger, than water intake in some countries, undertaking actions to improve fluid intake habits of children and adolescents are warranted.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00394-015-0955-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

PurposeTo describe the intake of water and all other fluids and to evaluate the proportion of adults exceeding the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendations on energy intake from free sugar, solely from fluids.MethodsA total of 16,276 adults (46 % men, mean age 39.8 years) were recruited in 13 countries from 3 continents. A 24-h fluid-specific record over 7 days was used for fluid assessment.ResultsIn Spain, France, Turkey, Iran, Indonesia and China, fluid intake was characterised by a high contribution of water (47–78 %) to total fluid intake (TFI), with a mean water intake between 0.76 and 1.78 L/day, and a mean energy intake from fluids from 182 to 428 kcal/day. Between 11 and 49 % of adults exceeded the free sugar WHO recommendations, considering solely fluids. In Germany, UK, Poland and Japan, the largest contributors to TFI were hot beverages (28–50 %) and water (18–32 %). Mean energy intake from fluids ranged from 415 to 817 kcal/day, and 48–62 % of adults exceeded free sugar WHO recommendations. In Mexico, Brazil and Argentina, the contribution of juices and regular sugar beverages (28–41 %) was as important as the water contribution to TFI (17–39 %). Mean energy intake from fluids ranged 565–694 kcal/day, and 60–66 % of the adults exceeded the free sugar WHO recommendation.ConclusionsThe highest volumes recorded in most of the countries were for water, mean energy intake from fluids was up to 694 kcal/day, and 66 % of adults exceeded the free sugar WHO recommendation solely by fluids. Actions to create an environment in favour of water consumption and reduce sugar intake from fluids therefore are warranted.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00394-015-0952-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

PurposeTo describe total fluid intake (TFI) according to socio-demographic characteristics in children and adolescents worldwide.MethodsData of 3611 children (4–9 years) and 8109 adolescents (10–18 years) were retrieved from 13 cross-sectional surveys (47 % males). In three countries, school classes were randomly recruited with stratified cluster sampling design. In the other countries, participants were randomly recruited based on a quota method. TFI (drinking water and beverages of all kinds) was obtained with a fluid-specific record over 7 consecutive days. Adequacy was assessed by comparing TFI to 80 % of adequate intake (AI) for total water intake set by European Food Safety Authority. Data on height, weight and socio-economic level were collected in most countries.ResultsThe mean (SD) TFI ranged from [1.32 (0.68)] to [1.35 (0.71)] L/day. Non-adherence to AIs for fluids ranged from 10 % (Uruguay) to >90 % (Belgium). Females were more likely to meet the AIs for fluids than males (4–9 years: 28 %, OR 0.72, p = 0.002; 10–18 years: 20 %, OR 0.80, p = 0.001), while adolescents were less likely to meet the AI than children (OR 1.645, p < 0.001 in males and OR 1.625, p < 0.001 in females).ConclusionsA high proportion of children and adolescents are at risk of an inadequate fluid intake. This risk is especially high in males and adolescents when compared with females or children categories. This highlights water intake among young populations as an issue of global concern.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00394-015-0946-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The final weeks of pregnancy and period of increasing lactation abound with adaptive changes in the intensity of metabolic processes. Maintaining the homeostasis of an organism in prepartum and postpartum periods is the key condition in maintaining the health of the mother and the fetus/calf. The aim of the study was to analyze physiological changes in lipid metabolism in cows during the last month of first pregnancy and in the first two months of lactation, based on the expression of identified apolipoproteins and changes in selected parameters of the lipid metabolism in peripheral blood plasma. Statistically significant changes in the expression of identified apolipoproteins were observed for apolipoprotein A-1 precursor, apolipoprotein A-IV precursor, apolipoprotein E precursor and apolipoprotein J precursor. The lowest expression of the apolipoproteins was noted around parturition and higher expression was observed during the final weeks of pregnancy and during lactation. Tendencies of changes in the concentration of total cholesterol, HDL and LDL were similar in blood plasma from analyzed cows -in the last month of pregnancy a decrease was observed and subsequently an increase in the first two months of lactation was noted. In contrast to abrupt changes observed for total cholesterol, HDL and LDL, changes in concentration of triglycerides were not that extensive and during lactation this parameter was rather stable. Evaluation of changes in the analyzed parameters may contribute to a better understanding of the changes in lipid metabolism occurring in the body of pregnant and lactating young cows.