To make practical the molecular dynamics simulation of large scale reactive chemical systems (1000s of atoms), we developed ReaxFF, a force field for reactive systems. ReaxFF uses a general relationship between bond distance and bond order on one hand and between bond order and bond energy on the other hand that leads to proper dissociation of bonds to separated atoms. Other valence terms present in the force field (angle and torsion) are defined in terms of the same bond orders so that all these terms go to zero smoothly as bonds break. In addition, ReaxFF has Coulomb and Morse (van der Waals) potentials to describe nonbond interactions between all atoms (no exclusions). These nonbond interactions are shielded at short range so that the Coulomb and van der Waals interactions become constant as R ij f 0. We report here the ReaxFF for hydrocarbons. The parameters were derived from quantum chemical calculations on bond dissociation and reactions of small molecules plus heat of formation and geometry data for a number of stable hydrocarbon compounds. We find that the ReaxFF provides a good description of these data. Generally, the results are of an accuracy similar or better than PM3, while ReaxFF is about 100 times faster. In turn, the PM3 is about 100 times faster than the QC calculations. Thus, with ReaxFF we hope to be able to study complex reactions in hydrocarbons.

To investigate the initial chemical events associated with high-temperature gas-phase oxidation of hydrocarbons, we have expanded the ReaxFF reactive force field training set to include additional transition states and chemical reactivity of systems relevant to these reactions and optimized the force field parameters against a quantum mechanics (QM)-based training set. To validate the ReaxFF potential obtained after parameter optimization, we performed a range of NVT-MD simulations on various hydrocarbon/O 2 systems. From simulations on methane/O 2 , o-xylene/O 2 , propene/O 2 , and benzene/O 2 mixtures, we found that ReaxFF obtains the correct reactivity trend (propene > o-xylene > methane > benzene), following the trend in the C-H bond strength in these hydrocarbons. We also tracked in detail the reactions during a complete oxidation of isolated methane, propene, and o-xylene to a CO/CO 2 /H 2 O mixture and found that the pathways predicted by ReaxFF are in agreement with chemical intuition and our QM results. We observed that the predominant initiation reaction for oxidation of methane, propene, and o-xylene under fuel lean conditions involved hydrogen abstraction of the methyl hydrogen by molecular oxygen forming hydroperoxyl and hydrocarbon radical species. While under fuel rich conditions with a mixture of these hydrocarbons, we observed different chemistry compared with the oxidation of isolated hydrocarbons including a change in the type of initiation reactions, which involved both decomposition of the hydrocarbon or attack by other radicals in the system. Since ReaxFF is capable of simulating complicated reaction pathways without any preconditioning, we believe that atomistic modeling with ReaxFF provides a useful method for determining the initial events of oxidation of hydrocarbons under extreme conditions and can enhance existing combustion models.

The reactive force-field (ReaxFF) interatomic potential is a powerful computational tool for exploring, developing and optimizing material properties. Methods based on the principles of quantum mechanics (QM), while offering valuable theoretical guidance at the electronic level, are often too computationally intense for simulations that consider the full dynamic evolution of a system. Alternatively, empirical interatomic potentials that are based on classical principles require significantly fewer computational resources, which enables simulations to better describe dynamic processes over longer timeframes and on larger scales. Such methods, however, typically require a predefined connectivity between atoms, precluding simulations that involve reactive events. The ReaxFF method was developed to help bridge this gap. Approaching the gap from the classical side, ReaxFF casts the empirical interatomic potential within a bond-order formalism, thus implicitly describing chemical bonding without expensive QM calculations. This article provides an overview of the development, application, and future directions of the ReaxFF method. INTRODUCTIONAtomistic-scale computational techniques provide a powerful means for exploring, developing and optimizing promising properties of novel materials. Simulation methods based on quantum mechanics (QM) have grown in popularity over recent decades due to the development of user-friendly software packages making QM level calculations widely accessible. Such availability has proved particularly relevant to material design, where QM frequently serves as a theoretical guide and screening tool. Unfortunately, the computational cost inherent to QM level calculations severely limits simulation scales. This limitation often excludes QM methods from considering the dynamic evolution of a system, thus hampering our theoretical understanding of key factors affecting the overall behaviour of a material. To alleviate this issue, QM structure and energy data are used to train empirical force fields that require significantly fewer computational resources, thereby enabling simulations to better describe dynamic processes. Such empirical methods, including reactive force-field (ReaxFF), 1 trade accuracy for lower computational expense, making it possible to reach simulation scales that are orders of magnitude beyond what is tractable for QM.Atomistic force-field methods utilise empirically determined interatomic potentials to calculate system energy as a function of atomic positions. Classical approximations are well suited for nonreactive interactions, such as angle-strain represented by harmonic potentials, dispersion represented by van der Waals potentials and Coulombic interactions represented by various polarisation schemes. However, such descriptions are inadequate for modelling changes in atom connectivity (i.e., for modelling chemical reactions as bonds break and form). This motivates the

LOFAR, the LOw-Frequency ARray, is a new-generation radio interferometer constructed in the north of the Netherlands and across europe. Utilizing a novel phased-array design, LOFAR covers the largely unexplored low-frequency range from 10-240 MHz and provides a number of unique observing capabilities. Spreading out from a core located near the village of Exloo in the northeast of the Netherlands, a total of 40 LOFAR stations are nearing completion. A further five stations have been deployed throughout Germany, and one station has been built in each of France, Sweden, and the UK. Digital beam-forming techniques make the LOFAR system agile and allow for rapid repointing of the telescope as well as the potential for multiple simultaneous observations. With its dense core array and long interferometric baselines, LOFAR achieves unparalleled sensitivity and angular resolution in the low-frequency radio regime. The LOFAR facilities are jointly operated by the International LOFAR Telescope (ILT) foundation, as an observatory open to the global astronomical community. LOFAR is one of the first radio observatories to feature automated processing pipelines to deliver fully calibrated science products to its user community. LOFAR's new capabilities, techniques and modus operandi make it an important pathfinder for the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). We give an overview of the LOFAR instrument, its major hardware and software components, and the core science objectives that have driven its design. In addition, we present a selection of new results from the commissioning phase of this new radio observatory.

To predict the structures, properties, and chemistry of materials involving silicon and silicon oxides; interfaces between these materials; and hydrolysis of such systems, we have developed the ReaxFF SiO , reactive force field. The parameters for this force field were obtained from fitting to the results of quantum chemical (QC) calculations on the structures and energy barriers for a number of silicon oxide clusters and on the equations of state for condensed phases of Si and SiO 2 from QC. We expect that ReaxFF SiO will allow accurate dynamical simulations of bond breaking processes in large silicon and silicon oxide systems. ReaxFF SiO is based closely on the potential functions of the ReaxFF CH reactive force field for hydrocarbons, so that it should also be useful for describing reactions of organics with Si and SiO 2 systems.

We report our study of a silica-water interface using reactive molecular dynamics. This first-of-its-kind simulation achieves length and time scales required to investigate the detailed chemistry of the system. Our molecular dynamics approach is based on the ReaxFF force field of van Duin et al. ͓J. Phys. Chem. A 107, 3803 ͑2003͔͒. The specific ReaxFF implementation ͑SERIALREAX͒ and force fields are first validated on structural properties of pure silica and water systems. Chemical reactions between reactive water and dangling bonds on a freshly cut silica surface are analyzed by studying changing chemical composition at the interface. In our simulations, reactions involving silanol groups reach chemical equilibrium in ϳ250 ps. It is observed that water molecules penetrate a silica film through a proton-transfer process we call "hydrogen hopping," which is similar to the Grotthuss mechanism. In this process, hydrogen atoms pass through the film by associating and dissociating with oxygen atoms within bulk silica, as opposed to diffusion of intact water molecules. The effective diffusion constant for this process, taken to be that of hydrogen atoms within silica, is calculated to be 1.68ϫ 10 −6 cm 2 / s. Polarization of water molecules in proximity of the silica surface is also observed. The subsequent alignment of dipoles leads to an electric potential difference of ϳ10.5 V between the silica slab and water.

We extend the reactive force field ReaxFF to describe the high energy nitramine RDX and use it with molecular dynamics (MD) to study its shock-induced chemistry. We studied shock propagation via nonequilibrium MD simulations at various collision velocities. We find that for high impact velocities (>6 km/s) the RDX molecules decompose and react to form a variety of small molecules in very short time scales (<3 ps). These products are consistent with those found experimentally at longer times. For lower velocities only NO2 is formed, also in agreement with experiments.

We use the recently developed reactive force field ReaxFF with molecular dynamics to study thermal induced chemistry in RDX ͓cyclic-͓CH 2 N͑NO 2 )] 3 ] at various temperatures and densities. We find that the time evolution of the potential energy can be described reasonably well with a single exponential function from which we obtain an overall characteristic time of decomposition that increases with decreasing density and shows an Arrhenius temperature dependence. These characteristic timescales are in reasonable quantitative agreement with experimental measurements in a similar energetic material, HMX ͓cyclic-͓CH 2 N͑NO 2 )] 4 ]. Our simulations show that the equilibrium population of CO and CO 2 ͑as well as their time evolution͒ depend strongly of density: at low density almost all carbon atoms form CO molecules; as the density increases larger aggregates of carbon appear leading to a C deficient gas phase and the appearance of CO 2 molecules. The equilibrium populations of N 2 and H 2 O are more insensitive with respect to density and form in the early stages of the decomposition process with similar timescales.