Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that is responsible for approximately 24% of all estimated deaths attributed to foodborne pathogens in the United States. Human infection results from accidental ingestion of oocysts from the environment, in water, or on insufficiently washed produce or from consumption of raw or undercooked meat products that contain T. gondii tissue cysts. This review focused on studies of T. gondii in meat because many human T. gondii infections are acquired through consumption of raw or undercooked meat. Prevalence of T. gondii is higher in conventionally reared pigs, sheep, and poultry than in cattle and is greater in meat products from organic than from conventionally reared meat animals because of outdoor access, which poses substantially greater opportunities for exposure to infected rodents, wildlife, and oocyst-contaminated feed, water, or environmental surfaces. Risk factors related to T. gondii exposure for livestock include farm type, feed source, presence of cats, methods of rodent and bird control, methods of carcass handling, and water quality. This review serves as a useful resource and information repository for informing quantitative risk assessment studies for T. gondii infection in humans through meat consumption.
The objective of this study was to assess the presence of a Listeria monocytogenes-containing biofilm in milking equipment as a potential source of bulk tank milk contamination on a dairy farm where milk contamination had been previously documented. Samples were collected from milking equipment and milking parlor premises on 4 occasions and analyzed for the presence of L. monocytogenes. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) typing was conducted on L. monocytogenes isolates from the milking equipment, parlor and storage room floors, bulk tank milk, and in-line milk filters. Pieces from milk meters and rubber liners were obtained to visually assess the presence of a biofilm using scanning electron microscopy. A total of 6 (15%), 4 (25%), and 1 (6%) samples were culture-positive for L. monocytogenes in the first, second, and third sample collection, respectively. Two samples were L. monocytogenes hly PCR-positive but were culture-negative in the fourth sample collection. Combined AscI and ApaI restriction analysis yielded 6 PFGE types for 15 L. monocytogenes isolates obtained from milking equipment, parlor, bulk tank milk, and milk filters. A predominant and persistent PFGE type (PFGE type T) was observed among these L. monocytogenes isolates (9/15 isolates). Scanning electron microscopy of samples from the bottom cover of 2 milk meters showed the presence of individual and clusters of bacteria, mainly associated with surface scratches. The presence of a bacterial biofilm was observed on the bottom covers of the 2 milk meters. Prevention of the establishment of biofilms in milking equipment is a crucial step in fulfilling the requirement of safe, high-quality milk.
The objective of this study was to evaluate whether cows that were low shedders of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis were passively shedding or truly infected with M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis. We also investigated whether it is possible that these M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis-infected animals could have been infected as adults by contemporary high-shedding animals (supershedders). The M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis isolates were obtained from a longitudinal study of three dairy herds in the northeastern United States. Isolates were selected from fecal samples and tissues at slaughter from all animals that were culture positive at the same time that supershedders were present in the herds. Shedding levels (CFU of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis/g of feces) for the animals at each culture-positive occasion were determined. Using a multilocus short-sequence-repeat technique, we found 15 different strains of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis from a total of 142 isolates analyzed. Results indicated herd-specific infection patterns; there was a clonal infection in herd C, with 89% of isolates from animals sharing the same strain, whereas herds A and B showed several different strains infecting the animals at the same time. Tissues from 80% of cows with at least one positive fecal culture (other than supershedders) were culture positive, indicating a true M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection. The results of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis strain typing and observed shedding levels showed that at least 50% of low shedders have the same strain as that of a contemporary supershedder. Results of this study suggest that in a dairy herd, more of the low-shedding cows are truly infected with M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis than are passively shedding M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis. The sharing of strains between low shedders and the contemporary supershedders suggests that low shedders may have been infected by environmental exposure of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis.
Longitudinal data from 3 commercial dairy herds in the northeast United States were collected from 2004 to 2007. Johne's disease status, as indicated by Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis infection levels, was determined through quarterly ELISA serum testing, biannual fecal culture, and culture of tissues at slaughter. Milk production data were collected from the Dairy Herd Improvement Association. The effect of Johne's disease status on milk production was analyzed using a mixed linear model with an autocorrelation random effect structure. Infected animals produced more milk than uninfected cows before they began shedding M. avium ssp. paratuberculosis. Cows infected with M. avium ssp. paratuberculosis had monthly decreases of 0.05 to 1 kg in daily milk production relative to uninfected animals, with greater decreases in progressive disease categories. Animals with fecal culture results of >30 cfu/g produced approximately 4 kg less milk per day compared with uninfected cows. These results will be valuable in calculating the economic effect of Johne's disease.
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